MAPT
Tau proteini (ili τ proteini, prema grčkom slovu koje označava ovo ime) su grupa od šest visoko rastvorljivih proteinskih izoformi proizvedenih alternativnom preradom primarnog transkripta gena MAPT (mikrotubulski-asocirani protein tau).[5][6] Prvenstvenu ulogu imaju u održavanju stabilnosti mikrotubula u aksonima i obiluju neuronima centralnog nervnog sistema (CNS). Manje su česti drugdje, ali se također eksprimiraju na vrlo niskim nivoima u CNS-ovim astrocitima i oligodendrocitima .[7]
Povezani sa tau proteinima koji su odgovorni za patološka stanje i demencija nervnog sistema, kao što su Alzheimerova i Parkinsonova bolest[8] Tau proteini postali su hiperfosforilirani nerastvorljivi agregati zvani neurofibrilskii sklopovi. Proteini tau identificirani su 1975. godine, kao termički stabilni proteini, neophodni za sastavljanje mikrotubula[9][10] > i od tada su okarakterizirani kao suštinski poremećeni proteini.[11]
Funkcija
urediStabilizacija mikrotubula
urediKod ljudi, tau proteini se češće nalaze u neuronima nego u neneuronskim ćelijama. Jedna od glavnih funkcija tau-a je moduliranje stabilnosti aksonskih mikrotubula.[10][12] Ostali sustemski proteini povezani sa mikrotubulama (MAP) mogu obavljati slične funkcije, kao što je predloženu u eksperimentu sa tau nokaut-miševima, koji nisu pokazali abnormalnosti u razvoju mozga – moguće zbog kompenzacije nedostatka tau od strane drugih MAP-ova.[13][14][15]
Iako je tau prisutan u dendritima na niskim nivoima, gdje je uključen u postsinapsne skele,[16] aktivan je prvenstveno u distalnim dijelovima aksona, gdje pruža stabilizaciju mikrotubula, ali i fleksibilnost po potrebi. Tau proteini komuniciraju s tubulinom, kako bi stabilizirali mikrotubule i u njima promovirali skupljanje tubulina.[10] Tau ima dva načina za kontrolu stabilnosti mikrotubula: izoforme i fosforilacija.
Pored funkcije u stabilizaciji mikrotubula, utvrđeno je da Tau regrutuje signalne proteine i regulira aksonski transport posredovan mikrotubulama.[17]
Translacija proteina
urediTau je negativni regulator translacije proteina i u Drosophila [12] i moždanoj gangliji kod ljudi.[18] Njegovo vezanje za ribosome, rezultira oštećenjem ribosomske funkcije, smanjenjem sinteza proteina i promijenjenom u funkciji funkciji sinapsi.[12][18] Tau specifično komunicira s nekoliko ribosomskih proteina, uključujući presudni regulator translacije rpS6.[19]
Ponašanje
urediPrimarna nećelijska funkcija tau-a je negativna reguliranje dugoročnog pamćenja[12] i olakšavanje navikavanja (oblik neasocijativnog učenja),[12] dvije više i integrirane fiziološke funkcije. Budući da je regulacija tau-a presudna za pamćenje, ovo bi moglo objasniti vezu između tauopatija i kognitivnih oštećenja.
Kod miševa, dok su prijavljeni sojevi nokaut-sojevi bez otvorenog fenotipa u mladosti,[13][20][21] kad ostare, pokazuju određenu mišićnu slabost, hiperaktivnost i oštećenje uslovljavanja straha.[22] Međutim, ni prostorno učenje kod miševa,[22][23][24] ni na kratkotrajnu memoriju (učenje) u Drosophila[12] izgleda da ne utiče odsustvo tau-a.
Pored toga, tau nokaut-miševi imaju abnormalan ciklus spavanja i budnosti, s povećanim periodima budnosti i smanjenim nebrzih pokreta oka (NREM) tokom spavanja.[25]
Ostale funkcije
urediOstale tipske funkcije tau uključuju ćelijsku signalizaciju, razvoj neurona, neurozaštitu i apoptozu.[14] Netipske, nestandardne uloge taua [26] su također pod aktuelnim istraživanjem, kao što je njihovo sudjelovanje u stabilnosti hromosoma, interakcija sa ćelijskim transkriptomom, interakcije s drugim citoskeletnim ili sinapsnim proteinima, uključenost u mijelinizaciju ili signalizacija u mozak za insulin, njegova uloga u izloženosti hroničnom stresu i depresiji, itd.
Genetika
urediU ljudi, MAPT gen za kodiranje tau proteina nalazi se na hromosomu 17, pozicija q21, koji sadrži 16 egzona.[27] Glavni tau protein u ljudskom mozgu je kodiran iz 11 egzona. Egzoni 2, 3 i 10 su alternativno prerađeni u šest tau izoformi.[28] U ljudskom mozgu, tau proteini čine porodicu od šest izoformi s rasponom od 352–441 aminokiselina. Tau izoforme su različite u nuli, jednom ili dva inserta od 29 aminokiselina na N-terminalnom dijelu (egzoni 2 i 3) i tri ili četiri regije ponavljanja na C-terminalnom dijelu (egzon 10). Dakle, najduža izoforma u CNS-u ima četiri ponavljanja (R1, R2, R3 i R4) i dva inserta (ukupno 441 aminokiselina), dok najkraća izoforma ima tri ponavljanja (R1, R3 i R4) i bez insercija (ukupno 352 aminokiseline).
Gen MAPT ima dvije haplogrupe, H1 i H2, u kojima se gen pojavljuje u obrnutim orijentacijama. Haplogrupa H2 česta je samo u Evropi i kod ljudi koji imaju evropsko porijeklo. Čini se da je haplogrupa H1 povezana s povećanom vjerovatnoćom određenih demencija, poput Alzheimerove bolesti. Prisustvo obje haplogrupe u Europi znači da rekombinacija između obrnutih haplotipova može rezultirati nedostatkom jedne od funkcionalnih kopija gena, što rezultira urođenim defektima.[29][30][31][32]
Struktura
uredi- Aminokiselinska sekvenca
Dužina polipeptidnog lanca je 758 aminokiselina, a molekulska težina 78.928 Da.[33].
10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MAEPRQEFEV | MEDHAGTYGL | GDRKDQGGYT | MHQDQEGDTD | AGLKESPLQT | ||||
PTEDGSEEPG | SETSDAKSTP | TAEDVTAPLV | DEGAPGKQAA | AQPHTEIPEG | ||||
TTAEEAGIGD | TPSLEDEAAG | HVTQEPESGK | VVQEGFLREP | GPPGLSHQLM | ||||
SGMPGAPLLP | EGPREATRQP | SGTGPEDTEG | GRHAPELLKH | QLLGDLHQEG | ||||
PPLKGAGGKE | RPGSKEEVDE | DRDVDESSPQ | DSPPSKASPA | QDGRPPQTAA | ||||
REATSIPGFP | AEGAIPLPVD | FLSKVSTEIP | ASEPDGPSVG | RAKGQDAPLE | ||||
FTFHVEITPN | VQKEQAHSEE | HLGRAAFPGA | PGEGPEARGP | SLGEDTKEAD | ||||
LPEPSEKQPA | AAPRGKPVSR | VPQLKARMVS | KSKDGTGSDD | KKAKTSTRSS | ||||
AKTLKNRPCL | SPKHPTPGSS | DPLIQPSSPA | VCPEPPSSPK | YVSSVTSRTG | ||||
SSGAKEMKLK | GADGKTKIAT | PRGAAPPGQK | GQANATRIPA | KTPPAPKTPP | ||||
SSGEPPKSGD | RSGYSSPGSP | GTPGSRSRTP | SLPTPPTREP | KKVAVVRTPP | ||||
KSPSSAKSRL | QTAPVPMPDL | KNVKSKIGST | ENLKHQPGGG | KVQIINKKLD | ||||
LSNVQSKCGS | KDNIKHVPGG | GSVQIVYKPV | DLSKVTSKCG | SLGNIHHKPG | ||||
GGQVEVKSEK | LDFKDRVQSK | IGSLDNITHV | PGGGNKKIET | HKLTFRENAK | ||||
AKTDHGAEIV | YKSPVVSGDT | SPRHLSNVSS | TGSIDMVDSP | QLATLADEVS | ||||
ASLAKQGL |
Simboli
C: Cistein
D: Asparaginska kiselina
E: Glutaminska kiselina
F: Fenilalanin
G: Glicin
H: Histidin
I: Izoleucin
K: Lizin
L: Leucin
M: Metionin
N: Asparagin
P: Prolin
Q: Glutamin
R: Arginin
S: Serin
T: Treonin
V: Valin
W: Triptofan
Y: Tirozin
Umoždanom tkivu čovjeka ima šest tau izoformi i razlikuju se po broju veznih domena. Tri izoforme imaju po tri domena vezanja, a ostale tri po četiri. Vezujući domeni nalaze se na karboksi-kraju proteina i pozitivno su nabijeni (omogućavajući mu da se veže za negativno nabijenu mikrotubulu). Izoforme sa četiri vezujuća domena bolje stabilizuju mikrotubule od onih sa tri vezivna domena. Tau je fosfoprotein sa 79 potencijalnih mjesta fosforilacije serina (Ser) i treonina (Thr) na najdužoj tau izoformi. Fosforilacija u normalnim tau proteinima zabilježena je na približno 30 od ovih mjesta.[34]
Fosforilaciju tau-a regulira mnoštvo kinaza, uključujući PKN, serin/treonin kinazu. Kada se PKN aktivira, fosforilira tau, što rezultira poremećajem organizacije mikrotubula.[35] Fosforilacija tau-a je također i razvojno regulirana. Naprimjer, fetusni tau je jače fosforiliran u embrionskom CNS-u kod odraslih.[36] Stepen fosforilacije u svih šest izoformi opada sa godinama usljed aktiviranja fosfataza.[37] Poput kinaza, i fosfataze imaju ulogu u regulaciji fosforilacije tau-a. Naprimjer, PP2A i PP2B su prisutni u moždanom tkivu čovjeka i imaju sposobnost defosforilacije Ser396.[38] Vezivanje ovih fosfataza za tau utiče na povezanost tau s mikrotubulama.
Predloženo je i da se fosforilacija tau-a regulira modifikacijom O - GlcNAc na različitim ostacima Ser i Thr.[39]
Mehanizam
urediAkumulacija hiperfosforiliranog tau-a u neuronima povezana je sa neurofibrilnom degeneracijom.[40] Stvarni mehanizam širenja tau iz jedne ćelije u drugu nije dobro identificiran. Također, ostali mehanizmi, uključujući oslobađanje tau-a i toksičnost, nisu jasni. Kao tau agregati, zamjenjuje tubulin, što zauzvrat pojačava fibrilizaciju tau-a.[41] Predloženo je nekoliko metoda popagacije koje se javljaju sinapsnim kontaktom, kao što su proteini adhezije sinapanih ćelija, neuronska aktivnost i drugi sinapsnii i nesinapsni mehanizmi.[42] Mehanizam tau agregacije još uvijek nije u potpunosti razjašnjen, ali nekoliko faktora favorizira ovaj proces, uključujući fosforilaciju tau-a i ione cinka.[43][44]
Otpuštanje
urediTau uključuje proces usvajanja i ispuštanja, koji je poznat kao sjetva. Za unos mehanizma tau proteina potrebno je prisustvo heparan-sulfat proteoglikana na ćelijskoj površini, gdje se događa makropinocitoza.[45] S druge strane, oslobađanje tau-a ovisi o neuronskoj aktivnosti. Mnogi faktori utiču na oslobađanje tau, naprimjer, tip izoformi ili mutacije MAPT-a koje mijenjaju vanćelijski nivo tau-a.[46] Prema Asaiju i njegovim kolegama, širenje tau proteina događa se iz entorinskog korteksa u hipokampusnu regiju, u ranim fazama bolesti. Također su sugerirali da je mikroglija također bila uključena u proces transporta, a njihova stvarna uloga još uvijek nije poznata.[47]
Toksičnost
urediToksične efekte, tau uzrokuje akumuliranjem unutar ćelija. U mehanizam toksičnosti uključeni su mnogi enzimi, kao što je PAR-1 kinaza. Ovaj enzim stimulira fosforilaciju serina 262 i 356, što zauzvrat dovodi do aktiviranja drugih kinaza (GSK-3 i CDK5), koje uzrokuju fosfoentropiju, povezanu sa bolešću.[48] Na stupanj toksičnosti utiču različiti faktori, poput stupnja vezanja mikrotubula.[49][50] Toksičnost bi se mogla dogoditi i neurofibrilarni splet s (NFT), što dovodi do ćelijske smrti i kognitivnog pada.
Klinički značaj
urediHiperfosforilacija tau proteina (tau inkluzije, pTau) može rezultirati samosastavljanjem sklopa uparenih spiralnih i ravnih niti, koje su uključene u patogenezu Alzheimerove bolesti, čeonosljepoočne demencije i druge tauopatije.[51] Svih šest tau izoforami prisutno je u često hiperfosforiliranom stanju u uparenim spiralnim nitima u mozgu osoba sa Alzheimerovom bolesti. U ostalim neurodegenerativnim bolestima zabilježeno je taloženje agregata obogaćenih određenim tau izoformama. Kada se pogrešno sklopi, ovaj inače vrlo rastvorljivi protein, može stvoriti izuzetno nerastvorljive agregate koji doprinose brojnim neurodegenerativnim bolestima. Tau protein ima direktan učinak na razgradnju živih ćelija uzrokovanu sklopovima koje formiraju i blokiraju sinapse živaca.[52]
Rodno specifična ekspresija gena tau u različitim regijama ljudskog mozga nedavno je uključena u rodne razlike u manifestacijama i riziku od tauopatija.[53] Neki aspekti funkcionisanja bolesti takođe ukazuju na to da ima neke sličnosti sa prionskim proteinima.[54]
Interakcije
urediDokazano je da protein tau komunicira sa:
Također pogledajte
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Vanjski linkovi
uredi- tau Proteins na US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
- GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on MAPT-Related Disorders
- MR scans of variant CJD CSF tau-positive man
- P10636