SAA1
Serumski amiloid A1 (SAA1) je protein koji je kod ljudi kodiran genom SAA1.[5][6] SAA1 glavni protein kojeg proizvode hepatociti, kao odgovor akutne faze na infekcije, ozljede tkiva i malignosti.[7]
Kada se pusti u cirkulaciju krvi, SAA1 je prisutan kao apolipoprotein povezan s lipoproteinom visoke gustoće (HDL).[8] SAA1 je glavni prekursor amiloida A (AA), čije taloženje dovodi do upalne amiloidoze.[9][10]
Gen
urediGen koji kodira humani SAA1 jedan je od četiri gena SAA mapirana na područje u kratkom kraku hromosoma 15.[11] Dva od ovih gena, SAA1 i SAA2, inducibilni su tokom odgovora u akutnoj fazi, dok je SAA3 ljudski pseudogen[12] a SAA4 je konstitutivno eksprimiran u različitim tkivima i ćelijama. Jednonukleotidni polimorfizmi (SNP) nalaze se u u kodirajućim i nekodirajućim sekvencama SAA1, pri čemu oni koji se nalaze u kodirajućoj sekvenci definiraju pet izoformi SAA1 (SAA1.1-1.5). Genetičke studije pokazale su povezanost nekih od ovih SNP-a sa sklonošću prema nekoliko ljudskih bolesti, uključujući poznatu mediteransku groznicu, bolesti koronarnih arterija, moždani infarkt i osteoporozu. Miševi takođe imaju četiri Saa gena. Glavna razlika između ljudskih i mišjih SAA gena je ekspresija mišjeg Saa3 gena za funkcionalni protein, koji se općenito smatra inducibilnim SAA u upalnim tkivima.
Aminokiselinska sekvenca
urediDužina polipeptidnog lanca je 122 aminokiseline, а molekulska težina 13.532 Da.[13]
10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MKLLTGLVFC | SLVLGVSSRS | FFSFLGEAFD | GARDMWRAYS | DMREANYIGS | ||||
DKYFHARGNY | DAAKRGPGGV | WAAEAISDAR | ENIQRFFGHG | AEDSLADQAA | ||||
NEWGRSGKDP | NHFRPAGLPE | KY |
Struktura proteina
urediProizvod ljudskog SAA1 je pretprotein od 122 aminokiseline, sa cijepljivim signalnim peptidom od 18 aminokiselina. Zreli SAA1 sastoji se od 104 aminokiseline s prividnom molekulskom težinom od 12.500 Da. Kristalna struktura SAA1.1 nedavno je riješena (slika desno). Izvorni SAA1 je heksamer pri čemu svaka podjedinica pretpostavlja antiparalelnu strukturu snopa s četiri spirale.[14] Struktura je konusnog oblika s vrhom koji tvori mjesto vezanja za HDL i heparin. N-terminalni heliksi 1 i 3 identificirani su kao amiloidogeni peptidi SAA1.1, koji nisu prisutni na površini proteina u nativnom SAA1 proteinu. Ovi nalazi pružaju strukturnu osnovu za stvaranje amiloidnih A vlakana. Ljudski SAA1.1 je uporediv na nivou podjedinice sa nedavno riješenom strukturom mišjeg Saa3.[15]
Inducibilna ekspresija
urediSAA1 i SAA2 su visoko inducibilni i stoga se nazivaju SAA u akutnoj fazi. Upalni citokini poput IL-1β, IL-6 i TNF-α glavni su stimulansi za ekspresiju hepatocitnih gena SAA1.[16] Inducibilna ekspresija gena SAA u akutnoj fazi uglavnom je regulirana na razini transkripcije i uključuje transkripcijske faktore C/EBP, NF-κB, AP2, SAF, Sp1 i STAT3. Povišenje transkripta SAA1 često se vidi u sekvencama cDNK koje se koriste za detekciju proinflamatorne ekspresije citokina. Nivo proteina SAA1 korelira sa nivoom transkripta i dugo se smatrao kliničkim pokazateljem upalnih stanja.
Interakcije
urediOsim što je povezan s HDL -om, SAA1 stupa u interakciju s brojnim proteinima sisara, uglavnom proteinima na ćelijskojpovršini, poput receptora. Vezivanje SAA1 za integrin αvβ3 proizvodi inhibitorni učinak na rast nazofarinksnog karcinoma.[17] Nekoliko receptora za SAA1 identificirano je pomoću hibridnog proteina SAA1 koji sadrži dvije zamjene aminokiselina iz SAA2.[18] Ovi receptori uključuju receptor hemoatraktanta vezan za G-protein FPR2 (receptor formil peptida 2),[19] a vjeruje se da posreduje u hemotaksijskoj aktivnosti rekombinantnog SAA1; mišji receptor za uklanjanje je SR-BI[20] i ljudski ekvivalent CLA-1.,[21] za mogući u ulogu u SAA1-ovisnom metabolizmu holesterola. Štaviše, Toll-liki receptori TLR2[22] i TLR4[23] posreduju citokinsku ekspresiju gena induciranu SAA1. P2X7 purinergini receptor je drugi receptor koji SAA1 koristi za brojne ćelijske funkcije, uključujući aktivaciju NLRP3 inflamasoma.[24]
Utvrđeno je da SAA1 stupa u interakciju s proteinom vanjske membrane A (ompA) nekoliko gram-negativnih bakterija, uključujući Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, Vibrio cholerae i P. aeruginosa.[25] Izlaganje ovih gram-negativnih bakterija SAA1 podstiče preuzimanje bakterije neutrofilima, što sugerira da SAA1 služi kao opsonin koji povećava bakterijski klirens.[26] Novija studija identificirala je interakciju SAA1s retinolom, što je rezultiralo smanjenjem bakterijskog opterećenja.[27] Ovi nalazi ukazuju na to da SAA1 ima funkciju u odbrani domaćina od bakterijske infekcije.
Funkcija i klinički značaj
urediBiološka funkcija SAA1 nije u potpunosti shvaćena, uprkos intenzivnim istraživanjima u posljednje tri decenije. Alati za istraživanje, poput nokaut SAA1 i [[transgeneza[transgenih]] miševa, postali su dostupni tek nedavno. Međutim, dobro je utvrđeno da je povišena koncentracija SAA1 u plazmi povezana s mnoštvom upalnih stanja. Kao rezultat toga, SAA1 je bio klinički pokazatelj i pouzdan biomarker za upalne bolesti, hronične metaboličke poremećaje i kasnu fazu malignosti.[28] Upalna amiloidoza posljedica je hronične upale s povećanom proizvodnjom SAA1, koji je glavni prekursor taloga amiloidnih A fibrila u različitim tkivima.[10]
SAA1 je opsežno proučavan u vezi sa njegovim vezivanjem za HDL, a rezultati ukazuju na ulogu u metabolizmu lipida. Tokom odgovora u akutnoj fazi, povišene razine SAA1 u plazmi istiskuju ApoA-I i postaju glavni apolipoprotein HDL-a.[29] Tačna biološka posljedica preoblikovanja HDL-a pomoću SAA1 još se istražuje, koristeći nedavno razvijene alate, poput Saa1 i Saa2 nokaut-miševa. Također se vjeruje da SAA1 doprinosi razvoju ateroskleroze.[30][31] Međutim, u modelu miša s nedostatkom ApoE, čini se da delacija gena Saa1/Saa2 ne utiče na aterosklerotske lezije.[32]
Studije ex vivo i in vitro pokazale su da rekombinantni ljudski hibridni protein SAA1 ima snažnu hemotaksijsku aktivnost za neutrofile i makrofage.[33] Vjeruje se da je ovaj učinak posredan putem FPR2, G-protein spregnutog receptora hemoatraktanta.[19] Isti receptor također posreduje citokinskoj aktivnosti rekombinantnog SAA1, što rezultira povišenom ekspresijom IL-8 u neutrofilima.[34] Zabilježeno je da rekombinantni SAA1 inducira ekspresiju različitih upalnih citokina, uključujući IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-12p40,[22][35] kao i imunoregulatorne citokine poput IL-23,[36] IL-33[37] i citokine koji stimuliraju rast, poput G-CSF.[38]
SAA1 također mogu proizvesti makrofagi i epitelne ćelije u različitim tkivima. Pokazalo se da podstiče lokalni Th17 odgovor u crijevima.[39] Ovaj nalaz, koji se temelji na Saa1/Saa2 nokaut-miševima i ex vivo studijama T-ćelija, snažno sugerira lokalnu imunomodulacijsku funkciju SAA1, za razliku od njegove utvrđene uloge kao proteina akutne faze koji se proizvodi u jetri i prisutan u plazmi kao apolipoprotein HDL-a. Transgenska ekspresija ljudskog SAA1.1 u jetri miša pogoršava hepatitis uzrokovan povećanom proizvodnjom hemokina T-ćelija,[40] što uključuje SAA1 receptor TLR2. Izlučivanje SAA1 u ćelijama melanoma može izazvati protivupalno djelovanje Interleukin 10 IL-10-neutrofila, koji luče i koji stupaju u interakciju s invarijantnim prirodnim T-ćelijama ubicama (iNKT ćelije)[41] Osim toga, SAA1 može izmijeniti makrofage do fenotipa M2.[42]
Objavljeni izvještaji povezuju SAA1 s brojnim zloćudnim bolestima, ali uzročna veza nije uspostavljena. SAA1 je povezan s patogenezom tumora,[28] and its gene polymorphism is a contributing factor to certain types of malignant tumors.[17] Također se pokazalo da SAA1 utiče na mikrookruženje tumora i doprinosi metastaziranju tumorskih ćelija.[43]
Neki od rezultata dobijenih s rekombinantnim ljudskim hibridom SAA1 i dalje su kontroverzni, jer protein nema potpuno istu sekvencu ljudskog SAA1, a njegova svojstva mogu se razlikovati od nativnog SAA1.[44] Ostale studije pokazale su da nativni ljudski SAA1 zadržava neke aktivnosti slične citokinima, poput sposobnosti indukcije G-CSF-a[45]
Nedavne studije koje su koristile Saa1/Saa2 nokaut-miševe pokazale su oslabljen Th17 odgovor u crijevnim epitelnim ćelijana,[39] sugerirajući da in vivo SAA1 ima ulogu u regulaciji imunosti.
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