Razlika između verzija stranice "Idžaza"

Prema ''Lexikon des Mittelalters'' i ''Historiji univerziteta u Europi'', porijeklo evropskog doktorata leži u kasnosrednjovjekovnom učenju čiji korijeni sežu do kasne antike i ranih dana [[Kršćanstvo|kršćanskog]] učenja [[Biblija|Biblije]] . <ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=Verger|first=J.|title=Lexikon des Mittelalters|at=cols 1155–1156|publisher=J.B. Metzler|location=Stuttgart|year=1999}}</ref> <ref name=":1">Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''[[Istorija univerziteta u Evropi|A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages]]'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}[[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Posebno:Knjižni izvori/0-521-36105-2|0-521-36105-2]], pp. XIX: "No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities – the bachelor's degree, the licentiate, the master's degree, and the doctorate – have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world."</ref> Ovo gledište ne sugerira nikakvu vezu između ''idžaze'' i doktorata. <ref>Cf. [[Lexikon des Mittelalters]], J.B. Metzler, Stuttgart 1999, entries on: Baccalarius, Doctor, Grade, universitäre, Licentia, Magister universitatis, Professor, Rector</ref> George Makdisi je umjesto toga izjavio da je ''idžaza'' bila vrsta akademskog stepena ili doktorata koji se izdavao u srednjovjekovnim [[Medresa|medresama]], sličan onom koji se kasnije pojavio na europskim srednjovjekovnim univerzitetima . <ref name="Makdisi">{{Citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|website=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]}}</ref> <ref name="stewart">{{Cite encyclopedia|archiveurl=Devin J. Stewart}}</ref> Devin J. Stewart također vidi paralelu i tvrdi da je "licenca za predavanje prava i izdavanje pravnih mišljenja očigledno bila stvarni dokument službenog ili pravnog statusa", istovremeno primjećujući razliku u ovlaštenju davanja (pojedinačni profesor za ''idžzazu'' i institucija u slučaju univerziteta). <ref name="stewart" /> Teoriju o islamskom porijeklu diplome prvobitno je predložio Alfred Guillaume 1930-ih, koji je smatrao ''idžazu'' kao preteču ''licentia docendi'', sa čime se slaže Syed Farid al-Attas . <ref name="Attas">{{Cite journal|last=Al-Attas|first=Syed Farid|date=1 January 2006|title=From Jāmi' ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue|url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439|journal=[[Current Sociology]]|volume=54|issue=1|pages=112–132|doi=10.1177/0011392106058837|issn=0011-3921|quote=In the 1930s, the renowned Orientalist Alfred Guillaume noted strong resemblances between Muslim and Western Christian institutions of higher learning. An example he cited is the ijazah, which he recognized as being akin to the medieval licentia docendi, the precursor of the modern university degree.}}</ref>

Makdisi je u istrazi o razlikama između kršćanskog [[Univerzitet|univerziteta]] i islamske [[Medresa|medrese]] iz 1970. godine u početku smatrao da je kršćanski doktorat srednjovjekovnog univerziteta jedini element na univerzitetu koji se najviše razlikuje od certifikacije islamske ''idžaze'' . <ref name="MakdisiEarly">{{Cite journal|last=Makdisi|first=George|year=1970|title=Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages|journal=Studia Islamica|issue=32|pages=255–264 (260)|doi=10.2307/1595223|jstor=1595223|quote=Perhaps the most fundamental difference between the two systems is embodied in their systems of certification; namely, in medieval Europe, the ''licentia docendi'', or license to teach; in medieval Islam, the ''ijaza'', or authorization. In Europe, the license to teach was a license to teach a certain field of knowledge. It was conferred by the licensed masters acting as a corporation, with the consent of a Church authority ... Certification in the Muslim East remained a personal matter between the master and the student. The master conferred it on an individual for a particular work, or works. Qualification, in the strict sense of the word, was supposed to be a criterion, but it was at the full discretion of the master}}</ref> Godine 1989., međutim, rekao je da porijeklo kršćanskog srednjovjekovnog doktorata ("licentia docendi") datira iz ''ijāzah al-tadrīs wa al-iftā''' ("licenca za podučavanje i izdavanje pravnih mišljenja") u srednjovjekovnom [[Šerijat|islamskom pravnom]] [[Medresa|obrazovanju sistem]] . <ref name="Makdisi" /> Makdisi je predložio da je ''idžazat attadris'' porijeklo evropskog doktorata, i otišao dalje u sugeriranju uticaja na magisterijum kršćanske crkve. <ref>{{Citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|website=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]|quote=I hope to show how the Islamic doctorate had its influence on Western scholarship, as well as on the Christian religion, creating there a problem still with us today. [...] As you know, the term doctorate comes from the Latin ''docere'', meaning to teach; and the term for this academic degree in medieval Latin was ''licentia docendi'', "the license to teach." This term is the word for word translation of the original Arabic term, ''ijazat attadris''. In the classical period of Islam's system of education, these two words were only part of the term; the full term included wa ''I-ifttd'', meaning, in addition to the license to teach, a "license to issue legal opinions." [...] The doctorate came into existence after the ninth century Inquisition in Islam. It had not existed before, in Islam or anywhere else. [...] But the influence of the Islamic doctorate extended well beyond the scholarly culture of the university system. Through that very system it modified the millennial magisterium of the Christian Church. [...] Just as Greek non-theistic thought was an intrusive element in Islam, the individualistic Islamic doctorate, originally created to provide machinery for the Traditionalist determination of Islamic orthodoxy, proved to be an intrusive element in hierarchical Christianity. In classical Islam the doctorate consisted of two main constituent elements: (I) competence, i.e., knowledge and skill as a scholar of the law; and (2) authority, i.e., the exclusive and autonomous right, the jurisdictional authority, to issue opinions having the value of orthodoxy, an authority known in the Christian Church as the magisterium. [...] For both systems of education, in classical Islam and the Christian West, the doctorate was the end-product of the school exercise, with this difference, however, that whereas in the Western system the doctorate at first merely meant competence, in Islam it meant also the jurisdictional magisterium.|url=https://doi.org/10.2307%2F604423}}</ref> Prema dokumentu iz 1989. godine, sistem ''idžaza'' je bii ekvivalent kvalifikaciji doktora prava i razvijen je tokom devetog stoljeća nakon formiranja ''[[Mezheb|mezhebskih]]'' pravnih škola. Da bi stekao doktorat, student je "morao studirati na pravnom fakultetu , obično četiri godine za osnovni dodiplomski kurs" i najmanje deset godina za postdiplomski kurs. "Doktorat je stečen nakon usmenog ispita kako bi se utvrdila originalnost njegovih teza", i da bi se ispitala "sposobnost studenta da ih brani od svih prigovora, u sporovima postavljenim u tu svrhu" što su bile naučne vježbe koje su se praktikovale tokom studentske " karijere diplomiranog studenta prava ." Nakon što su studenti završili postdiplomsko obrazovanje, dodijeljeni su im doktorati dajući im status ''fakiha'' (što znači " magistar prava "), ''[[Muftija|muftije]]'' (što znači "profesor [[Fetva|pravnih mišljenja]] ") i ''mudarrisa'' (što znači "učitelj"), koji su kasnije prevedeni na latinski kao ''magister'', ''[[profesor]]'' i ''[[Doktor (titula)|doktor]]'' . <ref name="Makdisi">{{Citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|website=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]}}<cite class="citation cs2" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFMakdisi1989">Makdisi, George (April–June 1989), "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', '''109''' (2): 175–182 [175–77], [[Digitalni identifikator objekta|doi]]:[[doi:10.2307/604423|10.2307/604423]], [[JSTOR]]&nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/604423 604423]</cite></ref>

Medrese su izdavale ''idžazat attadris'' u islamskom pravu [[Šerijat|''šerijatu'']], matematici, astrologiji, medicini, farmakologiji i filozofiji. <ref>{{Citation|title=1: Contextualizing Learning and Teaching of the Sciences in Islamicate Societies|date=January 2018|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1484/m.sa-eb.4.2018003|website=Teaching and Learning the Sciences in Islamicate Societies (800-1700)|series=Studies on the Faculty of Arts. History and Influence|pages=17–31|location=Turnhout|publisher=Brepols Publishers|isbn=978-2-503-57445-5|accessdate=2021-11-20}}</ref> Iako je šerijatski zakon bio glavni predmet u većini ovih medresa, nauke su tretirane sa istom vrijednošću u islamskom društvu, jer su napravljena mnoga otkrića u oblastima kao što je medicina gdje je uspostavljena prva bolnica <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hehmeyer|first=Ingrid|date=December 2007|title=Peter E. Pormann;, Emilie Savage‐Smith. Medieval Islamic Medicine . xiii + 223 pp., figs., bibl., index. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2007. $59.95 (cloth); $29.95 (paper).|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/529291|journal=Isis|language=en|volume=98|issue=4|pages=827–828|doi=10.1086/529291|issn=0021-1753}}</ref> i otkriven je plućni protok krvi. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aulianto|first=Dwi Ridho|last2=Yusup|first2=Pawit M|last3=Setianti|first3=Yanti|date=2019-11-15|title=Perkembangan ISSN Terbitan Berkala di Indonesia|journal=Khizanah Al-Hikmah: Jurnal Ilmu Perpustakaan, Informasi, Dan Kearsipan|volume=7|issue=2|pages=103|doi=10.24252/kah.v7i2a1|issn=2549-1334}}</ref> Diploma islamskog prava na [[Univerzitet Al-Azhar|Univerzitetu Al-Azhar]], najprestižnijem univerzitetu, tradicionalno se dodjeljivala bez završnih ispita, ali na osnovu pažljivog pohađanja kurseva od strane studenata. <ref>Jomier, J. "al- Azhar (al-Ḏj̲āmiʿ al-Azhar)." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2010: "There was no examination at the end of the course of study. Many of the students were well advanced in years. Those who left al-Azhar obtained an idjāza or licence to teach; this was a certificate given by the teacher under whom the student had followed courses, testifying to the student's diligence and proficiency."</ref> Međutim, postdiplomski doktorat prava stekao bi se tek nakon "usmenog ispita". <ref name="Makdisi Scholasticism">{{Citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|website=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 (176)|url=https://doi.org/10.2307%2F604423}}</ref> U radu iz 1999. Makdisi ističe da je dodjeljivanje diplome ''idžaze'' bilo u rukama profesora, i u ranom period Univerziteta u Bolonji, gdje su diplome prvobitno dodjeljivali profesori. <ref>{{Citation|last=George Makdisi|title=Religion and culture in medieval Islam|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-521-62350-6|pages=3–23 [10]}}</ref> On također ističe da su, slično kao što je ''idžazat attadris'' bio ograničen na pravo, prvi stepen u Bolonji također prvobitno bio ograničen na pravo, da bi se kasnije proširio na druge predmete. <ref>{{Citation|last=George Makdisi|title=Religion and culture in medieval Islam|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-521-62350-6|pages=3–23 [10–1]}}</ref>

Zapadni oblik obrazovanja je ono što je danas prilagođeno i koristi se širom svijeta. Ovaj obrazovni sistem posebnu pažnju skreće na formalnu obrazovnu instituciju – univerzitet. <ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Idriz|first=Mesut|date=2007|title=From a Local Traditional Practice to a Universal Practice: Ijazah as a Muslim Educational Tradition|url=https://www.academia.edu/2780391|journal=International Islamic University Malaysia|volume=Department of History and civilization}}</ref> Grupe pojedinaca studiraju na fakultetu sastavljenom od velikog broja profesora, od kojih je svaki priznat kao ekspert u svojoj oblasti, a po završetku nastavnog plana i programa studenti dobijaju diplomu. Diploma je dokument koji potvrđuje da univerzitetska institucija u cjelini prepoznaje znanja i sposobnosti određenog pojedinca u okviru određene oblasti studija.

Idžaza s druge strane ima mnogo drugačiji pristup u širenju znanja. Naglasak je stavljen na pdučavanje jedan na jedan, a ne na instituciju u cjelini. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Arjmand|first=Reza|url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-3-319-53620-0_55-1|title=Ijazah: Methods of Authorization and Assessment in Islamic Education|date=2018|isbn=978-3-319-53803-7|series=Springer International Handbooks of Education|volume=Centre for Middle Eastern Studies|pages=1–21|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-53620-0_55-1}}</ref> S obzirom da je naglasak na odnosu između učenika i instruktora, lokacija nije nužno bitna; mnogo toga gdje se obrazovanje stiče zavisi od predmeta koji se predaje, vjerska pitanja su se uglavnom predavala u džamijama, medicina u bolnicama, dok su se drugi predmeti možda predavali u medresama ili na drugim lokacijama. Još jedna razlika između idžaze je u tome što ona može biti više fokusirana na pojedinačni predmet nego na fakultetsku diplomu, gdje student pohađa nastavu o različitim predmetima kako bi postao svestraniji učenjak, a idžaza bi se mogla dati studentu na pojedinačnu knjigu ili bi učenik mogao dobiti opću idžazu. <ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Kopanski|first=Ataullah Bogdan|last2=Idriz|first2=Mesut|date=2007|title=Introduction to Special Focus|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853107x170123|journal=Asian Journal of Social Science|volume=35|issue=1|pages=90|doi=10.1163/156853107x170123|issn=1568-4849}}</ref> Po završetku obrazovanja iz nekog predmeta student bi bio usmeno ispitan od strane nastavnika, slično kao što studenti izlažu tezu u savremenom obrazovnom sistemu. <ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Idriz|first=Mesut|date=2007|title=From a Local Traditional Practice to a Universal Practice: Ijazah as a Muslim Educational Tradition|url=https://www.academia.edu/2780391|journal=International Islamic University Malaysia|volume=Department of History and civilization}}<cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFIdriz2007">Idriz, Mesut (2007). [https://www.academia.edu/2780391 "From a Local Traditional Practice to a Universal Practice: Ijazah as a Muslim Educational Tradition"]. ''International Islamic University Malaysia''. Department of History and civilization.</cite>

Učenici su mogli dobiti više različitih vrsta idžaza na osnovu onoga šta su učili. Šest različitih vrsta idžaza bile su: posebna, opća, generalna, idžaza za knjigu, dopisna idžaza i počasna idžaza. <ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Kopanski|first=Ataullah Bogdan|last2=Idriz|first2=Mesut|date=2007|title=Introduction to Special Focus|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853107x170123|journal=Asian Journal of Social Science|volume=35|issue=1|pages=90|doi=10.1163/156853107x170123|issn=1568-4849}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFKopanskiIdriz2007">Kopanski, Ataullah Bogdan; Idriz, Mesut (2007). [http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853107x170123 "Introduction to Special Focus"]. ''Asian Journal of Social Science''. '''35''' (1): 90. [[Digitalni identifikator objekta|doi]]:[[doi:10.1163/156853107x170123|10.1163/156853107x170123]]. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]]&nbsp;[[issn:1568-4849|1568-4849]]. [[Semantic Scholar|S2CID]]&nbsp;[https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144070396 144070396].</cite></ref> Posebna idžaza se smatrala najvišim oblikom idžaze koju je učenik mogao dobiti jer je pisalo da je određenom učeniku dopušteno da predaje određeno područje od strane određenog nastavnika. <ref name=":6" /> U općem obrascu je navedeno ime učenika i nastavnika bez navođenja naučenog predmeta. <ref name=":6" /> Generalna idžaza je samo navodila imena nastavnika i učenika u grupi. <ref name=":6" /> Idžaza koja se daje preko određene knjige predstavljala je da je učenik proučavao knjigu pred autorom i da je mogao recitovati knjigu napamet. <ref name=":6" /> Idžaza koja se daje putem prepiske davala se svaki put kada bi nastavnik zapisivao i slao tekst svojim učenicima i davao im dozvolu da predaju samo ono što su oni zapisali. <ref name=":6" /> Konačno, počasna idžaza davana je kao oblik poštovanja prema istaknutoj osobi, <ref name=":6" /> međutim one nisu imale veliku težinu u pogledu dopuštanja toj osobi da predaje predmetni materijal. <ref name=":7">{{Citation|last=Robinson|first=Francis|title=Education|date=2010|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/new-cambridge-history-of-islam/education/E7E659DF58521961D011BFCAC1F2FD35|website=The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 4: Islamic Cultures and Societies to the End of the Eighteenth Century|pages=495–531|series=The New Cambridge History of Islam|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83824-5|accessdate=2021-11-20}}</ref>

Učenici koji su stekli idžaze dolazili su iz svih sfera života, a pristup znanju nije bio ograničen godinama, spolom ili rasom. Dok je većina studenata stekla idžazu u tridesetim ili četrdesetim godinama, postojali su brojni značajni izuzeci od ove društvene norme. <ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Idriz|first=Mesut|date=2007|title=From a Local Traditional Practice to a Universal Practice: Ijazah as a Muslim Educational Tradition|url=https://www.academia.edu/2780391|journal=International Islamic University Malaysia|volume=Department of History and civilization}}<cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFIdriz2007">Idriz, Mesut (2007). [https://www.academia.edu/2780391 "From a Local Traditional Practice to a Universal Practice: Ijazah as a Muslim Educational Tradition"]. ''International Islamic University Malaysia''. Department of History and civilization.</cite>

Idžaze nisu davane studentima samo kao oblik "diplome" kako bi se potvrdilo da je učenik u potpunosti razumio učenje svog učitelja. Davali su ih i pisarima kao oblik dozvole da prenesu knjigu od autora. <ref name=":7">{{Citation|last=Robinson|first=Francis|title=Education|date=2010|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/new-cambridge-history-of-islam/education/E7E659DF58521961D011BFCAC1F2FD35|website=The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 4: Islamic Cultures and Societies to the End of the Eighteenth Century|pages=495–531|series=The New Cambridge History of Islam|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83824-5|accessdate=2021-11-20}}<cite class="citation cs2" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFRobinson2010">Robinson, Francis (2010), Irwin, Robert (ed.), [https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/new-cambridge-history-of-islam/education/E7E659DF58521961D011BFCAC1F2FD35 "Education"], ''The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 4: Islamic Cultures and Societies to the End of the Eighteenth Century'', The New Cambridge History of Islam, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, vol.&nbsp;4, pp.&nbsp;495–531, [[Digitalni identifikator objekta|doi]]:[[doi:10.1017/chol9780521838245.022|10.1017/chol9780521838245.022]], [[International Standard Book Number|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Posebno:BookSources/978-0-521-83824-5|<bdi>978-0-521-83824-5</bdi>]]<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2021</span></cite></ref> Idžaza koju je autor dao pisaru je u osnovi bio pečat odobrenja autora da pisar može prepisivati i umnožavati djelo kako bi podijelio i sačuvao znanje. <ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Kopanski|first=Ataullah Bogdan|last2=Idriz|first2=Mesut|date=2007|title=Introduction to Special Focus|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853107x170123|journal=Asian Journal of Social Science|volume=35|issue=1|pages=90|doi=10.1163/156853107x170123|issn=1568-4849}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFKopanskiIdriz2007">Kopanski, Ataullah Bogdan; Idriz, Mesut (2007). [http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853107x170123 "Introduction to Special Focus"]. ''Asian Journal of Social Science''. '''35''' (1): 90. [[Digitalni identifikator objekta|doi]]:[[doi:10.1163/156853107x170123|10.1163/156853107x170123]]. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]]&nbsp;[[issn:1568-4849|1568-4849]]. [[Semantic Scholar|S2CID]]&nbsp;[https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144070396 144070396].</cite></ref> Proces prenošenja autorske knjige započeo je tako što je autor recitirao svoj grubi nacrt pisaru, a pisar ga je zapisao, nakon što je to završeno, pisar bi zatim čitao ono što je napisao nazad autoru, a autor bi zatim iznosio promjene koje je želio napraviti, a onda kada je autor bio zadovoljan konačnim radom, pisaru je data idžaza. Ovaj proces se jako razlikuje od onoga kroz šta bi učenik prošao da bi dobio idžazu, ovaj proces se sastojao od toga da je učenika odabrao nastavnik da uči pod njima, a zatim bi on/ona učio od učitelja nekoliko godina prije nego što polaže test u kojem bi učenik morao recitirati svu nauku koju je naučio i istovremeno je komentirati, a ako bi učitelj smatrao da je učenik u potpunosti razumio njihovo učenje, učeniku bi dodijelio idžazu, što je značilo da ne samo da razumiju nastavu već i oni sami mogu podučavati druge učenike.