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'''''Idžaza''''' ( {{Jez-ar|الإِجازَة}} </link> , "diploma", "dozvola", "ovlaštenje", "licenca"; množina: '''''idžaze''''') je diploma koja ovlašćuje njenog nosioca da obavlja određene poslove, a koju izdaje neko ko već posjeduje takva ovlaštenja. Posebno se povezuje sa prenošenjem islamskog vjerskog znanja . <ref name="EI2">Vajda, G., Goldziher, I. and Bonebakker, S.A. (2012). "Id̲j̲āza". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (2nd ed.). Brill. doi: url=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3485</ref> Diploma obično podrazumijeva da je učenik ovo znanje stekao od izdavaoca ''idžaze'' putem usmene nastave iz prve ruke. <ref name="EI2" /> ''Idžaza'' koja daje lanac ovlaštenih prenosilaca koji sežu do originalnog autora često je pratila tekstove ''[[Hadis|hadisa]]'', ''[[Fikh|fikha]]'' i ''[[Tefsir|tefsira]]'' ; ali se pojavljivao i u mističnim, istorijskim i filološkim djelima, kao i u književnim zbirkama. <ref name="EI2" /> Dok se ''idžaza'' prvenstveno povezuje sa [[Sunitski islam|sunitskim islamom]], koncept se također pojavljuje u hadiskim tradicijama šiija sljedbenika dvanaest imama. <ref name="EI2" />
 
George Makdisi, profesor orijentalnih studija, smatra da je ''idžaza'' preteča univerzitetske akademske diplome, kao i doktorata . <ref name="Makdisi">{{Citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|website=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]|url=https://doi.org/10.2307%2F604423}}</ref> Profesor arapskog jezika, Alfred Guillaume (SOAS); Profesor sociologije, Syed Farid al-Attas ( Nacionalni univerzitet Singapura ) <ref name="Attas">{{Cite journal|last=Al-Attas|first=Syed Farid|date=1 January 2006|title=From Jāmi' ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue|url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439|journal=[[Current Sociology]]|volume=54|issue=1|pages=112–132|doi=10.1177/0011392106058837|issn=0011-3921|quote=In the 1930s, the renowned Orientalist Alfred Guillaume noted strong resemblances between Muslim and Western Christian institutions of higher learning. An example he cited is the ijazah, which he recognized as being akin to the medieval licentia docendi, the precursor of the modern university degree.}}</ref> Profesor bliskoistočnih studija, Devin J. Stewart ( Univerzitet Emory ) slažu se da postoji sličnost između ''idžaze'' i univerzitetske diplome. <ref name="stewart">Devin J. Stewart (2005). "Degrees, or Ijazah". In Josef W. Meri (ed.). ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia''. Routledge. pp. 201–203. ISBN <bdi>9781135455965</bdi>. <q>The license to teach law and issue legal opinions [...] is the type of ijazah that resembles the medieval European university degree most closely [...] The main difference between the two is that the granting authority is an individual professor, in the Islamic case, rather than a corporate institution in the case of the university. Despite this point, Makdisi has likened the ijazat al-ifta' wa'l-tadris to the medieval Latin licentia docendi and suggests that it served as a model for that degree.</q></ref> Međutim, Toby Huff i drugi odbacuju Makdisijevu teoriju. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Huff|first=Toby E.|title=The rise of early modern science: Islam, China, and the West|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0521529945|edition=2. ed., repr.|location=Cambridge [u.a.]|page=155|quote=It remains the case that no equivalent of the bachelor's degree, the licentia docendi, or higher degrees ever emerged in the medieval or early modern Islamic ''madrasas''.|author-link=Toby Huff}}</ref> <ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=Verger|first=J.|title=Lexikon des Mittelalters|at=cols 1155–1156|publisher=J.B. Metzler|location=Stuttgart|year=1999}}</ref> <ref name=":1">Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''[[Istorija univerziteta u Evropi|A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages]]'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. XIX: "No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities – the bachelor's degree, the licentiate, the master's degree, and the doctorate – have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world."</ref> <ref name=":2">Norman Daniel: Review of "The Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West by George Makdisi", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 104, No. 3 (Jul. – Sep., 1984), pp. 586–588 (587)</ref> Devin J. Stewart primjećuje razliku u ovlaštenju u smislu ko ih izdaje: pojedinačni profesor za ''idžazu'' i istitucija u slučaju univerziteta. <ref name="stewart" />
 
== Opis ==
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== Hipoteza o porijeklu doktorata ==
Prema ''Lexikon des Mittelalters'' i ''Historiji univerziteta u Europi'', porijeklo evropskog doktorata leži u kasnosrednjovjekovnom učenju čiji korijeni sežu do kasne antike i ranih dana [[Kršćanstvo|kršćanskog]] učenja [[Biblija|Biblije]] . <ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=Verger|first=J.|title=Lexikon des Mittelalters|at=cols 1155–1156|publisher=J.B. Metzler|location=Stuttgart|year=1999}}<cite class="citation cs2" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFVerger1999">Verger, J. (1999), "Doctor, doctoratus", [[Lexikon des Mittelalters|''Lexikon des Mittelalters'']], vol.&nbsp;3, Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler, cols 1155–1156</cite></ref> <ref name=":1">Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''[[Istorija univerziteta u Evropi|A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages]]'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}[[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[SpecialPosebno:BookSourcesKnjižni izvori/0-521-36105-2|0-521-36105-2]], pp. XIX: "No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities – the bachelor's degree, the licentiate, the master's degree, and the doctorate – have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world."</ref> Ovo gledište ne sugerira nikakvu vezu između ''idžaze'' i doktorata. <ref>Cf. [[Lexikon des Mittelalters]], J.B. Metzler, Stuttgart 1999, entries on: Baccalarius, Doctor, Grade, universitäre, Licentia, Magister universitatis, Professor, Rector</ref> George Makdisi je umjesto toga izjavio da je ''idžaza'' bila vrsta akademskog stepena ili doktorata koji se izdavao u srednjovjekovnim [[Medresa|medresama]], sličan onom koji se kasnije pojavio na europskim srednjovjekovnim univerzitetima . <ref name="Makdisi">{{Citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|website=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]}}<cite class="citation cs2" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFMakdisi1989">Makdisi, George (April–June 1989), "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', '''109''' (2): 175–182 [175–77], [[Digitalni identifikator objekta|doi]]:[[doi:10.2307/604423|10.2307/604423]], [[JSTOR]]&nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/604423 604423]</cite></ref> <ref name="stewart">{{Cite encyclopedia|archiveurl=Devin J. Stewart}}<cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFDevin_J._Stewart2005">[[Devin J. Stewart]] (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=c1ZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 "Degrees, or Ijazah"]. In Josef W. Meri (ed.). ''[[Srednjovjekovna islamska civilizacija: Enciklopedija|Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia]]''. [[Routledge]]. pp.&nbsp;201–203. [[International Standard Book Number|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9781135455965|<bdi>9781135455965</bdi>]]. <q>The license to teach law and issue legal opinions [...] is the type of ijazah that resembles the medieval European university degree most closely [...] The main difference between the two is that the granting authority is an individual professor, in the Islamic case, rather than a corporate institution in the case of the university. Despite this point, Makdisi has likened the ijazat al-ifta' wa'l-tadris to the medieval Latin licentia docendi and suggests that it served as a model for that degree.</q></cite></ref> Devin J. Stewart također vidi paralelu i tvrdi da je "licenca za predavanje prava i izdavanje pravnih mišljenja očigledno bila stvarni dokument službenog ili pravnog statusa", istovremeno primjećujući razliku u ovlaštenju davanja (pojedinačni profesor za ''idžzazu'' i institucija u slučaju univerziteta). <ref name="stewart" /> Teoriju o islamskom porijeklu diplome prvobitno je predložio Alfred Guillaume 1930-ih, koji je smatrao ''idžazu'' kao preteču ''licentia docendi'', sa čime se slaže Syed Farid al-Attas . <ref name="Attas">{{Cite journal|last=Al-Attas|first=Syed Farid|date=1 January 2006|title=From Jāmi' ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue|url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439|journal=[[Current Sociology]]|volume=54|issue=1|pages=112–132|doi=10.1177/0011392106058837|issn=0011-3921|quote=In the 1930s, the renowned Orientalist Alfred Guillaume noted strong resemblances between Muslim and Western Christian institutions of higher learning. An example he cited is the ijazah, which he recognized as being akin to the medieval licentia docendi, the precursor of the modern university degree.}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFAl-Attas2006">[[Syed Farid al-Attas|Al-Attas, Syed Farid]] (1 January 2006). [https://zenodo.org/record/29439 "From Jāmi' ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue"]. ''[[Current Sociology]]''. '''54''' (1): 112–132. [[Digitalni identifikator objekta|doi]]:[[doi:10.1177/0011392106058837|10.1177/0011392106058837]]. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]]&nbsp;[[issn:0011-3921|0011-3921]]. [[Semantic Scholar|S2CID]]&nbsp;[https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144509355 144509355]. <q>In the 1930s, the renowned Orientalist Alfred Guillaume noted strong resemblances between Muslim and Western Christian institutions of higher learning. An example he cited is the ijazah, which he recognized as being akin to the medieval licentia docendi, the precursor of the modern university degree.</q></cite></ref>
 
Makdisi je u istrazi o razlikama između kršćanskog [[Univerzitet|univerziteta]] i islamske [[Medresa|medrese]] iz 1970. godine u početku smatrao da je kršćanski doktorat srednjovjekovnog univerziteta jedini element na univerzitetu koji se najviše razlikuje od certifikacije islamske ''idžaze'' . <ref name="MakdisiEarly">{{Cite journal|last=Makdisi|first=George|year=1970|title=Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages|journal=Studia Islamica|issue=32|pages=255–264 (260)|doi=10.2307/1595223|jstor=1595223|quote=Perhaps the most fundamental difference between the two systems is embodied in their systems of certification; namely, in medieval Europe, the ''licentia docendi'', or license to teach; in medieval Islam, the ''ijaza'', or authorization. In Europe, the license to teach was a license to teach a certain field of knowledge. It was conferred by the licensed masters acting as a corporation, with the consent of a Church authority ... Certification in the Muslim East remained a personal matter between the master and the student. The master conferred it on an individual for a particular work, or works. Qualification, in the strict sense of the word, was supposed to be a criterion, but it was at the full discretion of the master}}</ref> Godine 1989., međutim, rekao je da porijeklo kršćanskog srednjovjekovnog doktorata ("licentia docendi") datira iz ''ijāzah al-tadrīs wa al-iftā''' ("licenca za podučavanje i izdavanje pravnih mišljenja") u srednjovjekovnom [[Šerijat|islamskom pravnom]] [[Medresa|obrazovanju sistem]] . <ref name="Makdisi" /> Makdisi je predložio da je ''idžazat attadris'' porijeklo evropskog doktorata, i otišao dalje u sugeriranju uticaja na magisterijum kršćanske crkve. <ref>{{Citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|website=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]|quote=I hope to show how the Islamic doctorate had its influence on Western scholarship, as well as on the Christian religion, creating there a problem still with us today. [...] As you know, the term doctorate comes from the Latin ''docere'', meaning to teach; and the term for this academic degree in medieval Latin was ''licentia docendi'', "the license to teach." This term is the word for word translation of the original Arabic term, ''ijazat attadris''. In the classical period of Islam's system of education, these two words were only part of the term; the full term included wa ''I-ifttd'', meaning, in addition to the license to teach, a "license to issue legal opinions." [...] The doctorate came into existence after the ninth century Inquisition in Islam. It had not existed before, in Islam or anywhere else. [...] But the influence of the Islamic doctorate extended well beyond the scholarly culture of the university system. Through that very system it modified the millennial magisterium of the Christian Church. [...] Just as Greek non-theistic thought was an intrusive element in Islam, the individualistic Islamic doctorate, originally created to provide machinery for the Traditionalist determination of Islamic orthodoxy, proved to be an intrusive element in hierarchical Christianity. In classical Islam the doctorate consisted of two main constituent elements: (I) competence, i.e., knowledge and skill as a scholar of the law; and (2) authority, i.e., the exclusive and autonomous right, the jurisdictional authority, to issue opinions having the value of orthodoxy, an authority known in the Christian Church as the magisterium. [...] For both systems of education, in classical Islam and the Christian West, the doctorate was the end-product of the school exercise, with this difference, however, that whereas in the Western system the doctorate at first merely meant competence, in Islam it meant also the jurisdictional magisterium.|url=https://doi.org/10.2307%2F604423}}</ref> Prema dokumentu iz 1989. godine, sistem ''idžaza'' je bii ekvivalent kvalifikaciji doktora prava i razvijen je tokom devetog stoljeća nakon formiranja ''[[Mezheb|mezhebskih]]'' pravnih škola. Da bi stekao doktorat, student je "morao studirati na pravnom fakultetu , obično četiri godine za osnovni dodiplomski kurs" i najmanje deset godina za postdiplomski kurs. "Doktorat je stečen nakon usmenog ispita kako bi se utvrdila originalnost njegovih teza", i da bi se ispitala "sposobnost studenta da ih brani od svih prigovora, u sporovima postavljenim u tu svrhu" što su bile naučne vježbe koje su se praktikovale tokom studentske " karijere diplomiranog studenta prava ." Nakon što su studenti završili postdiplomsko obrazovanje, dodijeljeni su im doktorati dajući im status ''fakiha'' (što znači " magistar prava "), ''[[Muftija|muftije]]'' (što znači "profesor [[Fetva|pravnih mišljenja]] ") i ''mudarrisa'' (što znači "učitelj"), koji su kasnije prevedeni na latinski kao ''magister'', ''[[profesor]]'' i ''[[Doktor (titula)|doktor]]'' . <ref name="Makdisi">{{Citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|website=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]}}<cite class="citation cs2" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFMakdisi1989">Makdisi, George (April–June 1989), "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', '''109''' (2): 175–182 [175–77], [[Digitalni identifikator objekta|doi]]:[[doi:10.2307/604423|10.2307/604423]], [[JSTOR]]&nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/604423 604423]</cite></ref>
Preuzeto iz "https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idžaza"