Razlika između verzija stranice "Merkantilizam"

Almost all the European economists who wrote between 1500 and 1750 are today generally considered mercantilists; however, these writers did not see themselves as contributing to a single economic ideology. The term was coined by the [[Marquis de Mirabeau]] in 1763, and was popularized by [[Adam Smith]] in 1776.{{refReference|name}} The word comes from the [[Latin]] word ''mercari'', which means "to run a trade," from ''merx'', meaning "commodity." It was initially used solely by critics, such as Mirabeau and Smith, but was quickly adopted by historians. Originally the standard English term was ''mercantile system''. The word ''mercantilism'' was introduced into English from [[German language|German]] in the early [[20th century]].

Mercantilism as a whole cannot be considered a unified theory of economics. There were no mercantilist writers who presented an overarching scheme for the ideal economy, as Adam Smith would later do for classical economics. Rather each mercantilist writer tended to focus on a single area of the economy.{{refReference|focus}} Only later did non-mercantilist scholars integrate these diverse ideas into what they called ''mercantilism''. Some scholars thus reject the idea of mercantilism completely, arguing that it gives "a false unity to disparate events".{{refReference|unity}} To a certain extent mercantilist doctrine itself made a general theory of economics impossible. Mercantilists viewed the economic system as a [[zero-sum game]], a gain by one party was a loss by another. Thus any system of policies that benefited one group would by definition harm the other, and there was no possibility of economics being used to maximize the common good.{{refReference|comp}} Mercantilist writings were also generally created to justify particular practices, rather than as investigations into the best policies.{{refReference|landis}}

Mercantilist domestic policy was more fragmented than its trade policy. While Adam Smith presented mercantilism as supporting strict controls over the economy, many mercantilists disagreed. The early modern era was one of [[letters patent]] and government imposed [[monopolies]]. Some mercantilists supported these, but others acknowledged the corruption and inefficiency of such systems. Many mercantilists also realized the inevitable result of quotas and price ceilings were [[black market]]s. One element mercantilists agreed on was the economic oppression of the working population. Labourers and farmers were to live at the margins of subsistence. The goal was to maximize [[production]], with no concern for [[consumption]]. Extra money, free time, or education for the lower classes was seen to inevitably lead to vice and laziness and harm to the economy.{{refReference|vice}}

Scholars are divided on why mercantilism was the dominant economic ideology for two and a half centuries.{{refReference|cause}} One group, represented by [[Jacob Viner]], argues that mercantilism was simply a straightforward, commonsense system that the people of the time simply did not have the analytical tools to discover was actually deeply fallacious. The second school, supported by scholars such as Robert B. Ekelund, contends that mercantilism was not a mistake, but rather the best possible system for those who developed it. This school argues that mercantilist policies were developed and enforced by [[rent-seeking]] merchants and governments. Merchants benefited greatly from the enforced monopolies, bans on foreign competition, and poverty of the workers. Governments benefited from the high tariffs and payments from the merchants. Whereas later economic ideas were often developed by academics and philosophers, almost all mercantilist writers were merchants or government officials.{{ref|jobs}}

Mercantilism developed at a time when the European economy was in transition. Isolated [[feudalism|feudal]] estates were being replaced by centralized [[nation-state]]s as the locus of power. Technological changes in shipping and the growth of urban centres led to a rapid increase in [[international trade]].{{refReference|feud}} Mercantilism focused on how this trade could best aid the states. Another important change was the introduction of [[double-entry bookkeeping]] and modern accounting. This accounting made extremely clear the inflow and outflow of trade, contributing to the close scrutiny given to the balance of trade.{{refReference|double}}

Prior to mercantilism, the most important economic work done in Europe was by the medieval [[scholasticism|scholastic]] theorists. The goal of these thinkers was to find an economic system that was compatible with Christian doctrines of piety and justice. They focused mainly on [[microeconomics]] and local exchanges between individuals. Mercantilism was closely aligned with the other theories and ideas that were replacing the Medieval worldview. This period saw the adoption of [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]'s [[realpolitik]] and the primacy of the ''[[raison d'état]]'' in [[international relations]]. The mercantilist idea that all trade was a zero sum game, in which each side was trying to cheat the other in a ruthless competition, was integrated into the works of [[Thomas Hobbes]]. This dark view of human nature also fit well with the [[Puritan]] view of the world, and some of the most stridently mercantilist legislation, such as the [[Navigation Acts]], was introduced by the government of [[Oliver Cromwell]].{{refReference|pur}}

Mercantilist ideas were the dominant economic ideology of all of Europe in the early modern period, and most states embraced it to a certain degree. Mercantilism was centred in England and France, and it was in these states that mercantilist polices were most often enacted. Mercantilism arose in France in the early 16th century, soon after the monarchy had become the dominant force in French politics. In 1539, an important decree banned the importation of woolen goods from [[Spain]] and some parts of [[Flanders]]. The next year, a number of restrictions were imposed on the export of bullion.{{refReference|decrees}} Over the rest of the sixteenth century further protectionist measures were introduced. The height of French mercantilism is closely associated with [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]], finance minister for 22 years in the 17th century, to the extent that French mercantilism is sometimes called '''''Colbertism'''''. Under Colbert, the French government became deeply involved in the economy in order to increase exports. Protectionist policies were enacted that limited imports and favoured exports. Industries were organized into guilds and monopolies, and production was regulated by the state through a series of over a thousands directives outlining how different products should be produced. To encourage industry foreign artisans and craftsmen were imported. Colbert also worked to decrease internal barriers to trade, reducing internal tariffs and building an extensive network of roads and [[canal]]s. Colbert's policies were quite successful, and France's industrial output and economy grew considerably during this period, as France became the dominant European power. He was less successful in turning France into a major trading power, and Britain and the Netherlands remained supreme in this field.{{refReference|Colbert}}

In Britain, mercantilism reached its peak during the [[Long Parliament]] government. Mercantilist policies were also embraced throughout much of the [[Tudor period|Tudor]] and [[House of Stuart|Stuart]] periods, with [[Robert Walpole]] being another major proponent. In Britain, government control over the domestic economy was far less extensive than on the [[Continental Europe|Continent]], limited by the [[common law]] tradition and the steadily increasing power of Parliament.{{ref|comm}} Government-controlled monopolies were common, especially before the [[English Civil War]], but were often controversial.{{refReference|monop}} British mercantilist writers were themselves divided on whether domestic controls were necessary. British mercantilism thus mainly took the form of efforts to control trade. A wide array of regulations were put in place to encourage exports and discourage imports. Tariffs were placed on imports and bounties given for exports, and the export of some raw materials was banned completely. The [[Navigation Acts]] expelled foreign merchants from Britain's domestic trade. The nation aggressively sought colonies and once under British control, regulations were imposed that allowed the colony to only produce raw materials and to only trade with Britain. This led to friction with the inhabitants of these colonies, and mercantilist policies were one of the major causes of the [[American Revolution]]. Over all, however, mercantilist policies had an important effect on Britain helping turn it into the world's dominant trader, and an international superpower. One domestic policy that had a lasting impact was the conversion of "waste lands" to agricultural use. Mercantilists felt that to maximize a nation's power all land and resources had to be used to their utmost, and this era thus saw projects like the draining of [[The Fens]].{{refReference|fens}}

David Hume famously noted the impossibility of the mercantilists' goal of a constant positive balance of trade. As bullion flowed into one country, the supply would increase and the value of bullion in that state would steadily decline relative to other goods. Conversely, in the state exporting bullion, prices would slowly drop. Eventually it would no longer be cost-effective to export goods from the high-price country to the low-price country, and the balance of trade would reverse itself. Mercantilists fundamentally misunderstood this, long arguing that an increase in the money supply simply meant that everyone gets richer.{{refReference|rich}}

The first school to completely reject mercantilism were the [[physiocrat]]s of France. Their theories also had several important problems, and the replacement of mercantilism did not come until Adam Smith published ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' in 1776. This book outlines the basics of what is today known as [[classical economics]]. Smith spends a considerable portion of the book rebutting the arguments of the mercantilists, though often these are simplified or exaggerated versions of mercantilist thought.{{refReference|straw}}

Scholars are also divided over the cause of mercantilism's end. Those who believe the theory was simply an error hold that its replacement was inevitable as soon as Smith's more accurate ideas were unveiled. Those who feel that mercantilism was rent-seeking hold that it ended only when major power shifts occurred. In Britain mercantilism faded as the Parliament gained the monarch's power to grant monopolies. While the wealthy capitalists who controlled the House of Commons benefited from these monopolies, Parliament found it difficult to implement them due to the high cost of group decision making. {{refReference|end}}

Mercantilist regulations were steadily removed over the course of the eighteenth century in Britain, and during the 19th century the British government fully embraced [[free trade]] and Smith's [[laissez-faire]] economics. On the continent the process was somewhat different. In France economic control remained in the hands of the royal family and mercantilism continued until the [[French Revolution]]. In [[Germany]] mercantilism remained an important ideology in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when the [[historical school of economics]] was paramount.{{refReference|Germany}}

Adam Smith rejected the mercantilist focus on production, arguing that consumption was the only way to grow an economy. Keynes argued that encouraging production was just as important as consumption. Keynes also noted that in the early modern period the focus on the bullion supplies was reasonable. In an era before [[paper money]], an increase in the amount of bullion was one of the only ways to increase the [[money supply]]. Keynes and other economists of the period also realized that the balance of payments is an important concern, and since the 1930s all nations have closely monitored the inflow and outflow of capital, and most economists agree that a favourable balance of trade is desirable. Keynes also adopted the essential idea of mercantilism that [[government intervention]] in the economy is a necessity. While Keynes' economic theories have had a major impact, few have accepted his effort to rehabilitate the word ''mercantilism.'' Today the word remains a pejorative term, often used to attack various forms of [[protectionism]].{{refReference|word}} The similarities between Keynesianism, and its successor ideas, with mercantilism have sometimes led critics to call them [[neo-mercantilism]]. Some other systems that do copy several mercantilist policies, such as [[Japan]]'s economic system, are also sometimes called neo-mercantilist.{{refReference|neo}}

In specific instances protectionist mercantilist policies also had an important and positive impact on the state that enacted them. Adam Smith, himself, for instance praised the [[Navigation Acts]] as they greatly expanded the British merchant fleet, and played a central role in turning Britain into the naval and economic superpower that it was for several centuries.{{refReference|nav}} Some economists thus feel that protecting infant industries, while causing short term harm, can be beneficial in the long term.