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{{Infokutija biografija
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|ime =Noam
 
|nameprezime = Noam =Chomsky
|imageslika = =Noam Chomsky, portrait 20152004.jpg
|širina slike =
|image_size =
|tekst uz sliku =
|caption = Chomsky in 2015
|dan rođenja =7
|birth_name = Avram Noam Chomsky
|mjesec rođenja =decembar
|birth_date = {{Birth date and age|mf=yes|1928|12|7}}
|godina rođenja =1928
|birth_place = [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]], U.S.
|mjesto rođenja =Philadelphia
|field = [[Linguistics]], [[analytic philosophy]], [[cognitive science]], [[intellectual history]], [[political criticism]]
|država rođenja =SAD
|work_institutions = {{Plainlist|
|dan smrti =
*[[MIT]] <small>(1955-present)</small>
|mjesec smrti =
*[[Institute for Advanced Study]] <small>(1958-1959)</small>
|godina smrti =
}}
|mjesto smrti =
|alma_mater = {{Plainlist|
|država smrti =
*[[University of Pennsylvania]] <small>([[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]], 1949; [[Master of Arts|M.A.]], 1951; [[Ph.D.]], 1955)</small>
|ženski pol =
*[[Harvard Society of Fellows]] <small>(1951–1955)</small>}}
|država za kategoriju=SAD
|thesis_title = Transformational Analysis
|thesis_url = http://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI0013380/
|thesis_year = 1955
|doctoral_advisor =
|doctoral_students = {{collapsible list| title = {{nbsp}} | [[Mark Baker (linguist)|Mark Baker]], [[Ray C. Dougherty]], [[C.-T. James Huang]], [[Ray Jackendoff]], [[George Lakoff]], [[Howard Lasnik]], [[Robert Lees]], [[James McCawley]], [[Barbara Partee]], [[John R. Ross]], and many others }}
|known_for = {{collapsible list| title = {{nbsp}} | {{Plainlist|
* "[[Colorless green ideas sleep furiously]]"
* [[Axiom of categoricity]]
* [[Bought priesthood]]
* [[Cartesian linguistics]]
* [[Chomsky Normal Form]]
* [[Chomsky hierarchy]]
* [[Chomsky–Schützenberger theorem (disambiguation)|Chomsky–Schützenberger theorem]]
* [[Cognitive closure (philosophy)|Cognitive closure]]
* [[Context-free grammar]]
* [[Context-sensitive grammar]]
* [[Corporate media]]
* [[Deep structure and surface structure]]
* [[Deterministic context-free grammar]]
* [[Digital infinity]]
* [[E-Language]]
* [[Elite media]]
* [[Empty category principle]]
* [[Extended Projection Principle]]
* [[Formal democracy]]
* [[Formal grammar]]
* [[Generative grammar]]
* [[Government and binding]]
* [[I-Language]]
* [[Immediate constituent analysis]]
* [[Innateness hypothesis]]
* [[Intellectual responsibility]]
* [[Language acquisition device]]
* [[Levels of adequacy]]
* [[Linguistic competence]]
* [[Linguistic performance]]
* [[Logical Form]]
* [[M-command]]
* [[Markedness]]
* [[Media manipulation]]
* [[Mentalism (philosophy)|Mentalism]]
* [[Merge (linguistics)|Merge]]
* [[Minimalist program]]
* [[Non-configurational language]]
* [[Parasitic gap]]
* [[Phonology]]
* [[Phrase structure grammar]]
* [[Phrase structure rules]]
* [[Plato's Problem]]
* [[Poverty of the stimulus]]
* [[Principles and parameters]]
* [[Projection Principle]]
* [[Propaganda model]]
* [[Psychological nativism]]
* [[Recursion|Recursion in language]]
* [[Scansion]]
* [[Second-language acquisition]]
* [[Self-censorship]]
* [[Specified subject condition]]
* [[Speech community]]
* [[Statistical language acquisition]]
* [[Structure preservation principle]]
* [[Subjacency]]
* [[Symbol (formal)|Symbol]]
* [[Tensed-S condition]]
* [[Terminal and nonterminal symbols]]
* [[Trace erasure principle]]
* [[Transformational grammar]]
* [[Transformational syntax]]
* [[Universal grammar]]
* [[X-bar theory]]
}} }}
|influences = {{collapsible list| title = {{nbsp}} | [[J. L. Austin]], [[Mikhail Bakunin]],<ref name="Taylor & Francis">{{cite book|title=Noam Chomsky: Critical Assessments, Volumes 2–3|year=1994|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-10694-8|page=487|editor=Carlos Peregrín Otero}}</ref> [[Alex Carey]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Chomsky|first=Noam|title=Class Warfare: Interviews with David Barsamian|year=1996|publisher=Pluto Press|location=London|pages=28–29|quote=The real importance of Carey's work is that it's the first effort and until now the major effort to bring some of this to public attention. It's had a tremendous influence on the work I've done.}}</ref> [[C. West Churchman]], [[William Chomsky]], [[René Descartes]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent|year=1998|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-52255-7|page=106|author=Robert F. Barsky}}</ref> [[John Dewey]], [[Nelson Goodman]], [[Morris Halle]], [[Zellig Harris]], [[Hebrew literature]],<ref name="Noam Chomsky">{{cite web|author=Noam Chomsky |url=http://www.chomsky.info/books/reader01.htm |title=Personal influences, by Noam Chomsky (Excerpted from The Chomsky Reader) |publisher=Chomsky.info |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]],<ref name="Taylor & Francis" /> [[David Hume]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Noam Chomsky|year=2006|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-86189-269-0|pages=44–45|author=Wolfgang B. Sperlich}}</ref> [[Roman Jakobson]], [[Immanuel Kant]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Time and Psychological Explanation: The Spectacle of Spain's Tourist Boom and the Reinvention of Difference|year=1993|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1469-9|page=115|author=Brent D. Slife}}</ref> [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/7865508/Noam-Chomsky-interview.html|title=Noam Chomsky interview|last=Farndale|first=Nigel|website=Telegraph.co.uk|access-date=2016-05-15}}</ref> [[Karl Korsch]], [[Peter Kropotkin]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Noam Chomsky Reading List|url=http://leftreferenceguide.wordpress.com/noam-chomsky-reading-list/|publisher=Left Reference Guide|accessdate=8 January 2014}}</ref> [[Vladimir Lenin]], [[Karl Liebknecht]], [[John Locke]], [[Rosa Luxemburg]], [[Dwight Macdonald]],<ref>{{cite video |people=Noam Chomsky |date=September 22, 2011 |title=Noam Chomsky on the Responsibility of Intellectuals: Redux |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PK9W5DE7ZtQ |medium= |language= |trans_title= |publisher=Ideas Matter |location= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |accessdate=October 16, 2011 |time=09:23 |id= |isbn= |oclc= |quote= |ref= }}</ref> [[Karl Marx]], [[John Stuart Mill]], [[George Armitage Miller]], [[George Orwell]], [[W. V. O. Quine]], [[Pāṇini]], [[Anton Pannekoek]], [[Jean Piaget]], [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], [[Hilary Putnam]],{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=58}} [[David Ricardo]], [[Rudolf Rocker]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Russian literature]],<ref name="Noam Chomsky">{{cite web|author=Noam Chomsky |url=http://www.chomsky.info/books/reader01.htm |title=Personal influences, by Noam Chomsky (Excerpted from The Chomsky Reader) |publisher=Chomsky.info |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> [[Diego Abad de Santillán]], [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], [[Marcel-Paul Schützenberger]], [[Adam Smith]], [[Leon Trotsky]], [[Alan Turing]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] }}
|influenced = {{collapsible list| title = {{nbsp}} | [[Michael Albert]], [[Julian Assange]], [[John Backus]],<ref>{{cite web|title=John W. Backus (1924–2007)|url=http://betanews.com/2007/03/20/john-w-backus-1924-2007/|publisher=BetaNews, Inc.|author=Scott M. Fulton, III}}</ref> [[Derek Bickerton]], [[Bono]],<ref name="Adams">{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/nov/30/highereducation.internationaleducationnews|title=Noam Chomsky: Thorn in America's side|last=Adams|first=Tim|date=2003-11-30|website=the Guardian|access-date=2016-05-08}}</ref> [[Julian C. Boyd]], [[Jean Bricmont]], [[Hugo Chávez]], [[Daniel Dennett]],<ref name="Chomsky Amid the Philosophers">{{cite web|title=Chomsky Amid the Philosophers|url=http://www.uea.ac.uk/~j108/chomsky.htm|publisher=University of East Anglia|accessdate=8 January 2014}}</ref> [[Daniel Everett]], [[Norman Finkelstein]], [[Robert Fisk]], [[Jerry Fodor]], [[Amy Goodman]], [[Stephen Jay Gould]],<ref name="Gould_dep">Gould, S. J. (1981). [http://www.antievolution.org/projects/mclean/new_site/depos/pf_gould_dep.htm "Official Transcript for Gould's deposition in McLean v. Arkansas".] (Nov. 27).</ref> [[Glenn Greenwald]], [[Gilbert Harman]], [[Marc Hauser]], [[Christopher Hitchens]],<ref name= "Adams" /> [[Norbert Hornstein]], [[Niels Kaj Jerne]], [[Naomi Klein]],<ref name= "Adams" /> [[Donald Knuth]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Knuth|first1=Donald E.|date=2003|title=Selected Papers on Computer Languages|url=|location=|publisher=|page=1|chapter=Preface: a mathematical theory of language in which I could use a computer programmer's intuition|isbn=1-57586-382-0| accessdate = }}</ref> [[Peter Ludlow]], [[Colin McGinn]],<ref>{{cite book|title=The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory|year=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-51426-9|edition=2|editor=Hugh LaFollette, Ingmar Persson}}</ref> [[Michael Moore]],<ref name= "Adams" /> [[John Nichols (journalist)|John Nichols]], [[Ann Nocenti]],<ref name=SequentialTart>Keller, Katherine (November 2, 2007). [http://www.sequentialtart.com/article.php?id=737 "Writer, Creator, Journalist, and Uppity Woman: Ann Nocenti"]. ''Sequential Tart''.</ref> [[John Pilger]],<ref name= "Adams" /> [[Steven Pinker]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Narrative, Religion and Science: Fundamentalism Versus Irony, 1700–1999|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00983-6|page=234|author=Stephen Prickett}}</ref> [[Harold Pinter]],<ref name= "Adams" /> [[Tanya Reinhart]], [[Arundhati Roy]], [[Edward Said]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Edward Said and the Religious Effects of Culture|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-77810-7|page=116|author=William D. Hart}}</ref> [[John Searle]],<ref>{{cite web|title=A Special Supplement: Chomsky's Revolution in Linguistics|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1972/jun/29/a-special-supplement-chomskys-revolution-in-lingui/|publisher=NYREV, Inc.|author=John R. Searle|date=June 29, 1972}}</ref> [[Neil Smith (linguist)|Neil Smith]], [[Aaron Swartz]],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Book That Changed My Life|url=http://www.aaronsw.com/weblog/epiphany|publisher=Raw Thought|accessdate=8 January 2014|author=Aaron Swartz|date=May 15, 2006}}</ref> [[Crispin Wright]],<ref name="Chomsky Amid the Philosophers" /> and many others}}
|prizes = {{collapsible list| title = {{nbsp}} | {{Plainlist|
*[[Guggenheim Fellowship]] <small>(1971)</small>
*[[APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology]] <small>(1984)</small>
*[[Orwell Award]] <small>(1987, 1989)</small>
*[[Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences]] <small>(1988)</small>
*[[Helmholtz Medal]] <small>(1996)</small>
*[[Benjamin Franklin Medal (Franklin Institute)|Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science]] <small>(1999)</small>
*[[Sydney Peace Prize]] <small>(2011)</small> }} }}
|footnotes = ''The New York Times'' has described him as "arguably the most important intellectual alive".<ref name="robinson">{{cite news|last = Robinson|first = Paul|title = The Chomsky Problem|newspaper = [[The New York Times]]|date = February 25, 1979|quote = Judged in terms of the power, range, novelty and influence of his thought, Noam Chomsky is arguably the most important intellectual alive today.}}</ref>
|spouse = {{Plainlist|
* [[Carol Chomsky|Carol Doris Schatz]] <small>(1949–2008; her death)</small>
* Valeria Wasserman <small>(2014–present)</small>
}}
|children = {{Plainlist|
* Aviva <small>(b. 1957)</small>
* Diane <small>(b. 1960)</small>
* Harry <small>(b. 1967)</small>
}}
|website = {{URL|chomsky.info}}
|signature = Noam Chomsky signature.svg
}}
 
'''Noam Chomsky''' (Noam Čomski) ([[Philadelphia]], [[7. decembar]] [[1928]] - ), [[Sjedinjene Američke Države|američki]] [[Filozofija|filozof]], lingvista, [[Psihologija|psiholog]], pisac i politički aktivista.
<!--Basic introduction; who he is-->
'''Avram Noam Chomsky''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|oʊ|m|_|ˈ|tʃ|ɒ|m|s|k|i}}; born December 7, 1928) is an American [[linguist]], [[philosopher]], [[cognitive scientist]], [[historian]], [[logician]], [[Social criticism|social critic]], and [[political activist]]. Sometimes described as "the father of modern linguistics", Chomsky is also a major figure in [[analytic philosophy]], and one of the founders of the field of [[cognitive science]]. He has spent more than half a century at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT), where he is [[List of Institute Professors at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology|Institute Professor]] [[Emeritus]], and is the author of over 100 books on topics such as [[linguistics]], [[war]], [[politics]], and [[mass media]]. Ideologically, he aligns with [[anarcho-syndicalism]] and [[libertarian socialism]].
 
<!--Early life up until 1966-->
Born to middle-class [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi Jewish]] immigrants in [[Philadelphia]], Chomsky developed an early interest in [[anarchism]] from alternative bookstores in [[New York City]]. At the age of sixteen he began studies at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], taking courses in linguistics, mathematics, and philosophy. He married fellow linguist [[Carol Chomsky|Carol Schatz]] in 1949. From 1951 to 1955 he was appointed to [[Harvard University]]'s [[Society of Fellows]], where he developed the theory of [[transformational grammar]] for which he was awarded his doctorate in 1955. That year he began teaching at MIT, in 1957 emerging as a significant figure in the field of linguistics for his landmark work ''[[Syntactic Structures]]'', which laid the basis for the scientific study of language, while from 1958 to 1959 he was a [[National Science Foundation]] fellow at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]]. He is credited as the creator or co-creator of the [[Universal Grammar|universal grammar]] theory, the [[generative grammar]] theory, the [[Chomsky hierarchy]], and the [[minimalist program]]. Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of [[behaviorism]], being particularly critical of the work of [[B. F. Skinner]].
 
<!--Later life post-1967-->
An outspoken opponent of U.S. involvement in the [[Vietnam War]], which he saw as an act of [[American imperialism]], in 1967 Chomsky attracted widespread public attention for his [[Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War|anti-war]] essay "[[The Responsibility of Intellectuals]]". Becoming associated with the [[New Left]], he was arrested multiple times for his activism and landed a place on President [[Richard Nixon]]'s [[Nixon's Enemies List|Enemies List]]. While expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades, he also became involved in the [[Linguistics Wars]]. In collaboration with [[Edward S. Herman]], Chomsky later co-wrote ''[[Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media]]'', an analysis articulating the [[propaganda model]] of media criticism, and worked to expose the [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor]]. However, his defense of unconditional [[freedom of speech]] – including that of [[Holocaust denial]] – generated significant controversy in what came to be known as the [[Faurisson affair]] of the early 1980s. Following his retirement from active teaching, he has continued his vocal political activism, including opposing the [[War on Terror]] and supporting the [[Occupy movement]].
 
<!--Brief assessment of Chomsky's reception and legacy:-->
Chomsky is one of the most cited scholars in human history, and has influenced a wide array of academic fields. He is widely recognized as a [[paradigm shift]]er who helped spark a major revolution in the [[human sciences]], contributing to the development of a new [[Cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivistic]] framework for the study of [[language]] and the [[mind]]. In addition to his continued scholarly research, he remains a leading [[Criticism of American foreign policy|critic of U.S. foreign policy]], [[neoliberalism]] and contemporary [[state capitalism]], the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]], and mainstream [[news media]]. His ideas in these areas have proved highly significant within the [[anti-capitalist]] and [[anti-imperialist]] movements, but have also drawn criticism, with some accusing Chomsky of [[anti-Americanism]] and alleging that he is sympathetic to [[terrorism]] and [[genocide denial]].
 
{{TOC limit|4}}
 
== Early life ==
 
===Childhood: 1928–45===
Avram Noam Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928, in the [[East Oak Lane, Philadelphia|East Oak Lane]] neighborhood of [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=9|3a1=McGilvray|3y=2014|3p=3}} His father was the Ukrainian-born [[William Chomsky|William "Zev" Chomsky]], an [[Ashkenazi Jewish|Ashkenazi Jew]] who had fled to the United States in 1913. Having studied at [[Johns Hopkins University]], William went on to become school principal of the [[Congregation Mikveh Israel]] religious school, and in 1924 was appointed to the faculty at [[Gratz College]] in Philadelphia. His wife was the [[Belarus]]ian-born Elsie Simonofsky (1903–1972), a teacher and activist whom William had met while working at Mikveh Israel.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=9–10|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=11}}
 
{{Quote box|width=246px|align=left|quote="What motivated his [political] interests? A powerful curiosity, exposure to divergent opinions, and an unorthodox education have all been given as answers to this question. He was clearly struck by the obvious contradictions between his own readings and mainstream press reports. The measurement of the distance between the realities presented by these two sources, and the evaluation of why such a gap exists, remained a passion for Chomsky."|source=Biographer [[Robert F. Barsky]], 1997{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=30–31}}}}
 
Noam was the Chomsky family's first child, with his younger brother, David Eli Chomsky, being born five years later.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=11–13|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=11}} The brothers were close, although David was more easygoing while Noam could be very competitive.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=11–13}} Chomsky and his brother were raised Jewish, being taught Hebrew and regularly discussing the political theories of [[Zionism]]; the family were particularly influenced by the [[Left Zionism|Left Zionist]] writings of [[Ahad Ha'am]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=11–13|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=11}} As a Jew, Chomsky faced [[anti-semitism]] as a child, particularly from the Irish and German communities living in Philadelphia.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=15}}
 
Chomsky described his parents as "normal [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]]" who had a center-left position on the political spectrum; however, he was exposed to far left politics through other members of the family, a number of whom were [[socialism|socialists]] involved in the [[International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=14|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=11, 14–15}} He was substantially influenced by his uncle, a dropout who owned a newspaper stand in [[New York City]] where Jewish leftists came to debate the issues of the day.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=23|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=12, 14–15, 67|3a1=McGilvray|3y=2014|3p=4}} Whenever visiting his uncle in New York City, Chomsky also frequented left-wing and anarchist bookstores, voraciously reading political literature.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=23}} He later described his discovery of [[anarchism]] as "a lucky accident"{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=17–19}} which allowed him to become critical of other radical left-wing ideologies, namely [[Stalinism]] and other forms of [[Marxism–Leninism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=17–19|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=16, 18}}
"I had relatives in New York City who I stayed with. And in those days, the area from Union Square down Fourth Avenue had small bookstores, many of which were run by Spanish immigrants who’d fled after Franco’s victory. I spent time in them, and also in the offices of Freie Arbeiter Stimme (Free Worker’s Voice) with anarchists. I picked up a lot of material and talked to people, and it became a major influence." <ref>[http://thehumanist.com/magazine/july-august-2016/features/rescuing-memory Rescuing Memory: the Humanist Interview with Noam Chomsky], by [[Jorge Majfud]]. [[The Humanist]] TheHumanist.com N. p., 2016. Web. 30 June 2016.</ref>
 
Chomsky's primary education was at [[Oak Lane Day School|Oak Lane Country Day School]], an independent [[Deweyism|Deweyite]] institution that focused on allowing its pupils to pursue their own interests in a non-competitive atmosphere.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=15–17|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3p=12|4a1=McGilvray|4y=2014|4p=3}} It was here that he wrote his first article, aged 10, on the spread of [[fascism]], following the [[Catalonia Offensive|fall of Barcelona]] to [[Francisco Franco]]'s fascist army in the [[Spanish Civil War]].<ref>[http://thehumanist.com/magazine/july-august-2016/features/rescuing-memory Rescuing Memory: the Humanist Interview with Noam Chomsky] [[The Humanist]] TheHumanist.com N. p., 2016. Web. 30 June 2016.</ref> {{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=15–17|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3p=13|4a1=McGilvray|4y=2014|4p=3}} Aged 12, he moved on to secondary education at [[Central High School (Philadelphia)|Central High School]], where he joined various clubs and societies and excelled academically, but was troubled by the hierarchical and regimented method of teaching employed there.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=21–22|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3p=14|4a1=McGilvray|4y=2014|4p=4}} From the age of 12 or 13, he identified more fully with anarchist politics.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=15–17}}
 
===University: 1945–55===
 
In 1945, Chomsky, aged 16, embarked on a general program of study at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], where he explored philosophy, logic, and languages and developed a primary interest in learning [[Arabic]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=47|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=16}} Living at home, he funded his undergraduate degree by teaching Hebrew.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=47}} However, he was frustrated with his experiences at the university, and considered dropping out and moving to a [[kibbutz]] in [[Mandatory Palestine]].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=17}} His intellectual curiosity was reawakened through conversations with the Russian-born linguist [[Zellig Harris]], whom he first met in a political circle in 1947. Harris introduced Chomsky to the field of theoretical linguistics and convinced him to major in the subject.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=48–51|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=18–19, 31}} Chomsky's [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] honors thesis was titled "Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew", and involved him applying Harris's methods to the language.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=51–52|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=32}} Chomsky revised this thesis for his [[Master of Arts|M.A.]], which he received at Penn in 1951; it would subsequently be published as a book.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=51–52|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=33}} He also developed his interest in philosophy while at university, in particular under the tutelage of his teacher [[Nelson Goodman]].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=33}}
 
From 1951 to 1955, Chomsky was named to the [[Society of Fellows]] at [[Harvard University]], where he undertook research on what would become his doctoral dissertation.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=79|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3p=20}} Having been encouraged to apply by Goodman,{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=34}} a significant factor in his decision to move to Harvard was that the philosopher [[Willard Van Orman Quine|W. V. Quine]] was based there; both Quine and a visiting philosopher, [[J. L. Austin]] of the [[University of Oxford]], would strongly influence Chomsky.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=33–34}} In 1952, Chomsky published his first [[academic article]], "Systems of Syntactic Analysis", which appeared not in a journal of linguistics, but in ''[[The Journal of Symbolic Logic]]''.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=34}} Being highly critical of the established behaviorist currents in linguistics, in 1954 he presented his ideas at lectures given at the [[University of Chicago]] and [[Yale University]].{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=81}} Although he had not been registered as a student at Pennsylvania for four years, in 1955 he submitted a thesis to them setting out his ideas on [[transformational grammar]]; he was awarded his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] on the basis of it, and it would be privately distributed among specialists on [[microfilm]] before being published in 1975 as part of ''The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory''.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=83–85|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=36|3a1=McGilvray|3y=2014|3pp=4&ndash;5}} Possession of this Ph.D. nullified his requirement to enter [[national service]] in the armed forces, which was otherwise due to begin in 1955.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=36}} [[George Armitage Miller]], a Professor at Harvard, read the Ph.D. and was impressed; together he and Chomsky published a number of technical papers in [[mathematical linguistics]].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=38}}
 
{{double image|left|Rudolf Rocker.jpg|155|George Orwell press photo.jpg|148|The work of anarcho-syndicalist [[Rudolf Rocker]] (left) and democratic socialist [[George Orwell]] (right) significantly influenced the young Chomsky.}}
 
In 1947, Chomsky entered into a romantic relationship with [[Carol Chomsky|Carol Doris Schatz]], whom he had known since they were toddlers, and they married in 1949.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=13, 48, 51–52|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=18–19}} After Chomsky was made a Fellow at Harvard, the couple moved to an apartment in the [[Allston]] area of [[Boston]], remaining there until 1965, when they relocated to the city's [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington]] area.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=20}} In 1953 the couple took up a Harvard travel grant in order to visit Europe, traveling from England through France and Switzerland and into Italy.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=20–21}} On that same trip they also spent six weeks at [[Hashomer Hatzair]]'s [[HaZore'a]] kibbutz in the newly established [[Israel]]; although enjoying himself, Chomsky was appalled by the Jewish nationalism and [[Anti-Arabism|anti-Arab racism]] that he encountered in the country, as well as the pro-Stalinist trend that he thought pervaded the kibbutz's leftist community.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=82|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=20–21}}
 
On visits to New York City, Chomsky continued to frequent the office of Yiddish anarchist journal ''[[Freie Arbeiter Stimme]]'', becoming enamored with the ideas of contributor [[Rudolf Rocker]], whose work introduced him to the link between anarchism and [[classical liberalism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=24|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=13}} Other political thinkers whose work Chomsky read included the anarchist [[Diego Abad de Santillán]], democratic socialists [[George Orwell]], [[Bertrand Russell]], and [[Dwight Macdonald]], and works by Marxists [[Karl Liebknecht]], [[Karl Korsch]], and [[Rosa Luxemburg]].{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=24–25}} His readings convinced him of the desirability of an anarcho-syndicalist society, and he became fascinated by the anarcho-syndicalist communes set up during the [[Spanish Civil War]], which were documented in Orwell's ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]'' (1938).{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=26}} He avidly read leftist journal ''[[politics (magazine 1944-1949)|politics]]'', remarking that it "answered to and developed" his interest in anarchism,{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=34–35}} as well as the periodical ''[[International Council Correspondence|Living Marxism]]'', published by [[council communism|council communist]] [[Paul Mattick]]. Although rejecting its Marxist basis, Chomsky was heavily influenced by council communism, voraciously reading articles in ''Living Marxism'' written by [[Antonie Pannekoek]].{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=36–40}} He was also greatly interested in the Marlenite ideas of the [[Leninist League (US)|Leninist League]], an anti-Stalinist Marxist–Leninist group, sharing their views that the [[Second World War]] was orchestrated by Western capitalists and the Soviet Union's '[[state capitalism|state capitalists]]' to crush Europe's proletariat.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=43–44}}
 
===Early career: 1955–1966===
 
Chomsky had befriended two linguists at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT), [[Morris Halle]] and [[Roman Jakobson]], the latter of whom secured him an assistant professor position at MIT in 1955. There Chomsky spent half his time on a [[mechanical translation]] project, and the other half teaching a course on linguistics and philosophy.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=86–87|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3pp=38–40}} He later described MIT as "a pretty free and open place, open to experimentation and without rigid requirements. It was just perfect for someone of my idiosyncratic interests and work."{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=87}} In 1957 MIT promoted him to the position of associate professor, and from 1957–58 he was also employed by [[Columbia University]] as a visiting professor.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xvi|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=91}} That same year, Chomsky's first child, a daughter named [[Aviva Chomsky|Aviva]], was born,{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=91|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=22}} and he published his first book on linguistics, ''[[Syntactic Structures]]'', a work that radically opposed the dominant [[Zellig Harris|Harris]]–[[Leonard Bloomfield|Bloomfield]] trend in the field.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=88–91|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=40|3a1=McGilvray|3y=2014|3p=5}} The response to Chomsky's ideas ranged from indifference to hostility, and his work proved divisive and caused "significant upheaval" in the discipline.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=88–91}} Linguist [[John Lyons (linguist)|John Lyons]] later asserted that it "revolutionized the scientific study of language".{{sfn|Lyons|1978|p=1}} From 1958–59 Chomsky was a [[National Science Foundation]] fellow at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton, New Jersey]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xvi|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=84}}
 
In 1959 he published a review of [[B.F. Skinner]]'s 1957 book ''[[Verbal Behavior]]'' in the journal ''[[Language (journal)|Language]]'', in which he argued against Skinner's view of language as learned behavior.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=6|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=96–99|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3p=41|4a1=McGilvray|4y=2014|4p=5}} Opining that Skinner ignored the role of human creativity in linguistics, his review helped him to become an "established intellectual",{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=119}} and he proceeded to found MIT's Graduate Program in linguistics with Halle. In 1961 he was awarded [[academic tenure]], being made a full professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=101–102, 119|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=23}} He went on to be appointed plenary speaker at the Ninth [[International Congress of Linguists]], held in 1962 in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], which established him as the ''de facto'' spokesperson of American linguistics.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=102}} He continued to publish his linguistic ideas throughout the decade, including in ''[[Aspects of the Theory of Syntax]]'' (1966), ''Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar'' (1966), and ''[[Cartesian linguistics|Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought]]'' (1966).{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=103}} Along with Halle, he also edited the ''Studies in Language'' series of books for [[Harper and Row]],{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=104}} and extended the theory of generative grammar to [[phonology]] in ''[[The Sound Pattern of English]]'' (1968).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://libraries.mit.edu/chomsky/slideshow/#active=1&slide=b4|title=Slideshow {{!}} unBox the Chomsky Archive {{!}} MIT Libraries|website=libraries.mit.edu|access-date=2016-05-10}}</ref> He continued to receive academic recognition and honors for his work, in 1966 visiting a variety of Californian institutions, first as the [[Linguistics Society of America]] Professor at the [[University of California]], and then as the Beckman Professor at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xvi|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=120}} His Beckman lectures would be assembled and published as ''Language and Mind'' in 1968.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=122}} The ensuing debates between Chomsky and his critics came to be known as the '[[Linguistics Wars]]', although they revolved largely around debating philosophical issues rather than linguistics proper.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=60–61}}
 
==Later life==
 
===Anti-Vietnam War activism and rise to prominence: 1967–1975===
{{Quote box|width=246px|align=left|quote="[I]t does not require very far-reaching, specialized knowledge to perceive that the United States was invading South Vietnam. And, in fact, to take apart the system of illusions and deception which functions to prevent understanding of contemporary reality [is] not a task that requires extraordinary skill or understanding. It requires the kind of normal skepticism and willingness to apply one's analytical skills that almost all people have and that they can exercise."|source=Chomsky on the Vietnam War{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=114}}}}
 
Chomsky first involved himself in active political protest against U.S. involvement in the [[Vietnam War]] in 1962, speaking on the subject at small gatherings in churches and homes.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=78}} However, it was not until 1967 that he publicly entered the debate on United States foreign policy.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=120}} In February he published a widely read essay in ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'' entitled "[[The Responsibility of Intellectuals]]", in which he criticized the country's involvement in the conflict; the essay was based on an earlier talk that he had given to Harvard's Foundation for Jewish Campus Life.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=122|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=83}} He expanded on his argument to produce his first political book, ''[[American Power and the New Mandarins]],'' which was published in 1969 and soon established him at the forefront of American dissent.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xvii|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=122–123|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3p=83}} His other political books of the time included ''At War with Asia'' (1971), ''The Backroom Boys'' (1973), ''For Reasons of State'' (1973), and ''Peace in the Middle East?'' (1975), published by [[Pantheon Books]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xvi–xvii|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=163|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3p=87}} Coming to be associated with the American [[New Left]] movement,{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=5|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=123}} he nevertheless thought little of prominent New Left intellectuals [[Herbert Marcuse]] and [[Erich Fromm]], and preferred the company of activists to intellectuals.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=134–135}} Although ''The New York Review of Books'' did publish contributions from Chomsky and other leftists from 1967 to 1973, when an editorial change put a stop to it,{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=162–163|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=87}} he was virtually ignored by the rest of the mainstream press throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=162–163}}
 
Along with his writings, Chomsky also became actively involved in left-wing activism. Refusing to pay half his taxes, he publicly supported students who refused [[Conscription in the United States|the draft]], and was arrested for being part of an anti-war teach-in outside [[the Pentagon]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=5|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=127–129}} During this time, Chomsky, along with [[Mitchell Goodman]], [[Denise Levertov]], [[William Sloane Coffin]], and [[Dwight Macdonald]], also founded the anti-war collective [[RESIST (non-profit)|RESIST]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=5|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=127–129|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3pp=80–81}} Although he questioned the objectives of the [[1968 student protests]],{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=121–122, 131}} he gave many lectures to student activist groups; furthermore, he and his colleague Louis Kampf began running undergraduate courses on politics at MIT, independently of the conservative-dominated [[political science]] department.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=121|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=78}}
 
In this period, MIT's various departments were researching helicopters, smart bombs and counterinsurgency techniques for the war in Vietnam and, as Chomsky says, 'a good deal of [nuclear] missile guidance technology was developed right on the MIT campus.' <ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x3ertj1IcaAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Michael Albert, ''Remembering Tomorrow''], p97-99; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1lCwP-RNExkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=otero+chomsky+language&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiZuID4muzNAhVJK8AKHcE7BmkQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q&f=false C.P.Otero, ''Noam Chomsky: Language and Politics''], p247; [http://tech.mit.edu/V92/PDF/V92-N21.pdf 'MIT may be dangerous to the world'], ''The Tech'', 28/4/72, p5.</ref> As Chomsky elaborates, '[MIT was] about 90% Pentagon funded at that time. And I personally was right in the middle of it. I was in a military lab ... the Research Laboratory for Electronics.'<ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Campus_Inc.html?id=fm6dAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y G.D.White, ''Campus Inc.''], p445.</ref> Although most of MIT's student activists simply wanted to stop this weapons research,<ref>Stephen Shalom, [http://nova.wpunj.edu/newpolitics/issue23/shalom23.htm 'A flawed political biography' - review of Robert Barsky, ''Noam Chomsky: a life of dissent''], ''New Politics'', Issue 23; [http://scienceandrevolution.org/blog/2016/7/8/why-smash-mit-1969-article-from-radical-student-magazine-the-old-mole 'Why Smash MIT?'] in Immanuel Wallerstein, ''University Crisis Reader'', vol.2, p240-3; [http://tech.mit.edu/V89/PDF/V89-N43.pdf ''The Tech'', 9/11/69]; [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nD4QZFubjaY An extract from Ricky Leacock's documentary, ''November Actions'', on MIT's student protests in 1969].</ref> Chomsky proposed keeping such research on campus provided it was restricted to what he called 'systems of a purely defensive and deterrent character.' <ref>[http://mitscienceforthepeople.weebly.com/uploads/4/0/9/8/40982869/review_panel_on_speciallaboratories_-_final_report_-_oct_1969.pdf ''MIT Review Panel on Special Laboratories Final Report''], p37-8; See also [http://docslide.us/documents/noam-chomsky-a-life-of-dissent.html Robert Barsky, ''Noam Chomsky: a life of dissent'', p140-1].</ref> MIT's student president at this time, [[Mike Albert]], was—and still is—Chomsky's close colleague but he has described Chomsky's position as merely 'preserving war research with modest amendments'.<ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x3ertj1IcaAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Michael Albert, ''Remembering Tomorrow''], p98.</ref>
 
Chomsky's complicated attitude toward MIT was particularly evident in a series of letters published in ''The New York Review of Books'' in 1967. In the first letter he admitted that he had 'given a good bit of thought to ... resigning from MIT, which is, more than any other university associated with the activities of the Department of 'Defense'.' He also stated that MIT's 'involvement in the [Vietnam] war effort is tragic and indefensible.' However, in a second letter, a month later, Chomsky made the rather different claim that 'MIT as an institution has no involvement in the war effort. Individuals at MIT, as elsewhere, have direct involvement and that is what I had in mind.' <ref>''The New York Review of Books'', [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1967/03/23/the-responsibility-of-intellectuals-an-exchange/ March 1967] and [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1967/04/20/the-responsibility-of-intellectuals-4/ April 1967].</ref>
 
Since then, Chomsky has continued to defend his university. For example, although MIT had six anti-war student activists sentenced to prison terms at this time,<ref>[http://tech.mit.edu/V91/PDF/V91-N55.pdf 'Battering Ram: The occupation of the president's office', ''The Tech'', 14/12/71 p4] and [http://tech.mit.edu/V92/PDF/V92-N28.pdf ''The Tech'', 4/8/72].</ref> Chomsky has, nevertheless, described MIT as 'the freest and the most honest and has the best relations between faculty and students than any other ... [with] quite a good record on civil liberties. That was shown to be particularly true during the 1960s.'<ref>[https://chomsky.info/1992____/ //chomsky.info/1992____]. See also: Noam Chomsky, ''[[Class Warfare]]'' p137.</ref> It was such attitudes that seem to have led Chomsky into what he has called 'considerable conflict' with the students of the period. In fact, he has described their rebellions as 'largely misguided' and he was unimpressed by the events of May 1968 in Paris, even saying, 'I paid virtually no attention to what was going on in Paris as you can see from what I wrote—rightly, I think.' <ref>[http://docslide.us/documents/noam-chomsky-a-life-of-dissent.html Barsky, ''Noam Chomsky'', p121-2, 131].</ref> Yet, despite this, Chomsky was still very grateful to the students for raising what he considered to be the most important issue, stopping the Vietnam war. Indeed, in 1970, Chomsky visited the Vietnamese city of [[Hanoi]] to give a lecture at the [[Hanoi University of Science and Technology]]; on this trip he also toured Laos to visit the refugee camps created by the war, and in 1973 he was among those leading a committee to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the [[War Resisters League]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=153|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=24–25, 84–85}}
 
[[Image:Nixon 30-0316a.jpg|thumb|right|200px|President [[Richard Nixon]] placed Chomsky on his 'Enemies List']]
 
As a result of his anti-war activism, Chomsky was ultimately arrested on multiple occasions, and U.S. President [[Richard Nixon]] included him on his [[Nixon's Enemies List|Enemies List]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=124|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=80}} He was aware of the potential repercussions of his civil disobedience, and his wife began studying for her own Ph.D. in linguistics in order to support the family in the event of Chomsky's imprisonment or loss of employment.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=123–124|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=22}} However, MIT—despite being under some pressure to do so—refused to fire him due to his influential standing in the field of linguistics.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=143}} His work in this area continued to gain international recognition; in 1967 he received honorary doctorates from both the [[University of London]] and the [[University of Chicago]][[Doctor of Humane Letters|.]]{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv–xvi|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=120}} In 1970, [[Loyola University Chicago|Loyola University]] and [[Swarthmore College]] also awarded him honorary D.H.L.'s, as did [[Bard College]] in 1971, [[Delhi University]] in 1972, and the [[University of Massachusetts]] in 1973.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv–xvi|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=143}}
 
Moreover, Chomsky's stature as an analytic philosopher continued to grow; in 1971 he gave the Bertrand Russell Memorial Lectures at the [[University of Cambridge]], which were published as ''Problems of Knowledge and Freedom'' later that year. He also delivered the [[Whidden Lectures]] at [[McMaster University]], the [[Huizinga Lecture]] at [[Leiden University]] in the Netherlands, the Woodbridge Lectures at [[Columbia University]], and the Kant Lectures at [[Stanford University]].{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=156}} In 1971 he partook in a televised debate with French philosopher [[Michel Foucault]] on Dutch television, entitled ''Human Nature: Justice versus Power''.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=192–195|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=52}} Although largely agreeing with Foucault's ideas, he was critical of [[post-modernism]] and French philosophy generally, believing that post-modern leftist philosophers used obfuscating language which did little to aid the cause of the working-classes{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=192–195|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=53}} and lambasting France as having "a highly parochial and remarkably illiterate culture."{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=192–195}} Chomsky also continued to publish prolifically in linguistics, publishing ''Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar'' (1972),{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=143}} an enlarged edition of ''Language and Mind'' (1972),{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=51}} and ''Reflections on Language'' (1975).{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=51}} In 1974 he became a corresponding fellow of the [[British Academy]].{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=156}}
 
===Edward Herman and the Faurisson affair: 1976–1980===
[[File:Noam Chomsky (1977).jpg|thumb|left|Noam Chomsky (1977)]]
Throughout the late 1970s and 1980s, Chomsky's publications expanded and clarified his earlier work, addressing his critics and updating his grammatical theory.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=175}} His public talks often generated considerable controversy, particularly when he criticized actions of the Israeli government and military,{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=167, 170}} and his political views came under attack from right-wing and centrist figures, the most prominent of whom was [[Alan Dershowitz]]. Chomsky considered Dershowitz "a complete liar" and accused him of actively misrepresenting his position on issues.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=170–171}} Furthermore, during the early 1970s he had begun collaborating with [[Edward S. Herman]], who had also published critiques of the U.S. war in Vietnam.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=157}} Together they authored ''[[Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact & Propaganda]]'', a book which criticized U.S. military involvement in Southeast Asia and highlighted how mainstream media neglected to cover stories about these activities; the publisher [[Warner Modular]] initially accepted it, and it was published in 1973. However, Warner Modular's parent company, [[Warner Communications]], disapproved of the book's contents and ordered all copies to be destroyed.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=160–162|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=86}}
 
While mainstream publishing options proved elusive, Chomsky found support from [[Mike Albert]]'s [[South End Press]], an activist-oriented publishing company.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=85}}
In 1979, Chomsky and Herman revised ''Counter-Revolutionary Violence'' and published it with South End Press as the two-volume ''The Political Economy of Human Rights''.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=187|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=86}} In this they compared U.S. media reactions to the [[Khmer Rouge rule of Cambodia|Cambodian genocide]] and the [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor]]. They argued that because Indonesia was a U.S. ally, U.S. media ignored the East Timorese situation while focusing on that in Cambodia, a U.S. enemy.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=187}} Taking a particular interest in the situation in East Timor, Chomsky testified on the subject in front of the [[United Nations]]' [[Special Committee on Decolonization]] in both 1978 and 1979, and attended a conference on the occupation held in [[Lisbon]] in 1979.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=103}} The following year, Steven Lukas authored an article for the ''[[Times Higher Education Supplement]]'' accusing Chomsky of betraying his anarchist ideals and acting as an apologist for Cambodian leader [[Pol Pot]]. Although Laura J. Summers and Robin Woodsworth Carlsen replied to the article, arguing that Lukas completely misunderstood Chomsky and Herman's work, Chomsky himself did not. The controversy damaged his reputation,{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=187–189}} and Chomsky maintains that his critics deliberately printed lies about him in order to defame him.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=190}}
 
Although Chomsky had long publicly criticized [[Nazism]] and [[totalitarianism]] more generally, his commitment to [[freedom of speech]] led him to defend the right of French historian [[Robert Faurisson]] to advocate a position widely characterized as [[Holocaust denial]]. Without Chomsky's knowledge, his plea for the historian's freedom of speech was published as the preface to Faurisson's 1980 book ''Mémoire en défense contre ceux qui m'accusent de falsifier l'histoire''.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=179–180|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=61}} Chomsky was widely condemned for defending Faurisson,{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=185|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=61}} and France's mainstream press accused Chomsky of being a Holocaust denier himself, refusing to publish his rebuttals to their accusations.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=184}} Critiquing Chomsky's position, sociologist [[Werner Cohn]] later published an analysis of the affair titled ''Partners in Hate: Noam Chomsky and the Holocaust Deniers''.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=78}} The Faurisson affair had a lasting, damaging effect on Chomsky's career,{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=185}} and Chomsky didn't visit France, where the translation of his political writings was delayed until the 2000s,<ref>{{cite news |last=Birnbaum|first=Jean | title=Chomsky à Paris : chronique d'un malentendu
| url=http://www.lemonde.fr/livres/article/2010/06/03/chomsky-a-paris-chronique-d-un-malentendu_1367002_3260.html| work=Le Monde des Livres | date=3 June 2010 | accessdate=8 June 2010}}</ref> for almost thirty years following the affair.<ref>{{cite news |last=Aeschimann|first=Eric| title=Chomsky s’est exposé, il est donc une cible désignée | url=http://www.liberation.fr/monde/0101638536-chomsky-s-est-expose-il-est-donc-une-cible-designee | work=Liberátion | date=31 May 2010 | accessdate=8 June 2010}}</ref>
 
===Reaganite era and work on the media: 1980–89===
 
The election of [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] candidate [[Ronald Reagan]] to the U.S. Presidency in 1981 marked a period of increased military intervention in [[Central America]].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=90&ndash;91}} In 1985, during [[Nicaraguan Revolution#Contra War|Nicaragua's Contra War]] – in which the U.S. supported the [[Contras|Contra militia]] against the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinista]] government – Chomsky travelled to [[Managua]] to meet with workers' organizations and refugees of the conflict, giving public lectures on politics and linguistics.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=91, 92}} Many of these lectures would be published in 1987 as ''On Power and Ideology: The Managua Lectures''.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=91}} In 1983 he published ''The Fateful Triangle'', an examination of the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|Israel-Palestine conflict]] and the place of the U.S. within it, arguing that the U.S. had continually used the conflict for its own ends.{{sfnm|1a1=Sperlich|1y=2006|1p=99|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2p=13}} In 1988, Chomsky then visited the [[Palestinian territories]] to witness the impact of Israeli military occupation.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=98}}
 
In 1988, Chomsky and Herman published ''[[Manufacturing Consent|Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media]]'', in which they outlined their [[propaganda model]] for understanding the mainstream media; there they argued that even in countries without official censorship, the news provided was censored through four filters which greatly impacted on what stories are reported and how they are presented.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=160, 202|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=127–134}} The book was adapted into a 1992 film, ''[[Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media]]'', which was directed by [[Mark Achbar]] and [[Peter Wintonick]].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=136}} In 1989, Chomsky published ''[[Necessary Illusions|Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies]],'' in which he critiqued what he sees as the pseudo-democratic nature of Western capitalist states.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=138–139}}
 
By the 1980s, a number of Chomsky's students had become leading linguistic specialists in their own right, expanding, revising, and innovating on Chomsky's ideas of generative grammar.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=53}} By the end of the 1980s, Chomsky had established himself as a globally recognized figure.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=59}}
 
===Increased political activism: 1990–present===
 
[[File:Noam Chomsky WSF - 2003.jpg|thumb|right|Chomsky at the [[World Social Forum]] ([[Porto Alegre]]) in 2003]]
 
In the 1990s, Chomsky embraced political activism to a greater degree than before.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=214}} Retaining his commitment to the cause of East Timorese independence, in 1995 he visited Australia to talk on the issue at the behest of the [[East Timorese Relief Association]] and the [[National Council for East Timorese Resistance]].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=104}} The lectures that he gave on the subject would be published as ''Powers and Prospects'' in 1996.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=104}} As a result of the international publicity generated by Chomsky, his biographer Wolfgang Sperlich opined that he did more to aid the cause of East Timorese independence than anyone but the investigative journalist [[John Pilger]].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=107}} After East Timor's independence from Indonesia was achieved in 1999, the Australian-led [[International Force for East Timor]] arrived as a peacekeeping force; Chomsky was critical of this, believing that it was designed to secure Australian access to East Timor's oil and gas reserves under the [[Timor Gap Treaty]].{{Sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=109–110}}
 
Chomsky retired from full-time teaching,{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=6}} although as an [[Emeritus]] he nevertheless continued to conduct research and seminars at MIT.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=10}}
 
After the [[September 11 attacks]] in 2001, Chomsky was widely interviewed, with these interviews being collated and published by [[Seven Stories Press]] in October.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=110–111}}
Chomsky argued that the ensuing [[War on Terror]] was not a new development, but rather a continuation of the same U.S. foreign policy and its concomitant rhetoric that had been pursued since at least the Reagan era of the 1980s.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=143}} In 2003 he published ''[[Hegemony or Survival]]'', in which he articulated what he called the United States' "imperial grand strategy" and critiqued the [[Iraq War]] and other aspects of the 'War on Terror.'{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=114–118}}
 
[[File:Noam Chomsky Toronto 2011.jpg|thumb|left|Chomsky speaking in support of the [[Occupy movement]] in 2011]]
 
Chomsky toured the world with increasing regularity during this period, giving talks on various subjects.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=120}} In 2001 he gave the [[D.T. Lakdawala]] Memorial Lecture<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/2001/11/04/stories/0204000j.htm U.S., Britain ignored 'culture of terrorism': Chomsky], ''[[The Hindu]]'' November 4, 2001. Retrieved 21 March 2016.</ref> in [[New Delhi]], India, and in 2003 visited Cuba at the invite of the [[Latin American Association of Social Scientists]].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=120}} In 2002 Chomsky visited Turkey in order to attend the trial of a publisher who had been accused of treason for printing one of Chomsky's books; Chomsky insisted on being a [[co-defendant]] and amid international media attention the Security Courts dropped the prosecution on the first day.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=25}} During that trip, Chomsky visited Kurdish areas of Turkey and spoke out in favour of the Kurds' [[human rights]].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=25}} A supporter of the [[World Social Forum]], he attended their conferences in Brazil in both 2002 and 2003, also attending the Forum event in India.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=112–113, 120}}
 
His wife, Carol, died in December 2008.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=6}}
 
Chomsky was drawn to the energy and activism of the [[Occupy movement]], delivering talks at encampments and producing two works that chronicled its influence, first [[Occupy (Chomsky book)|''Occupy'']] a pamphlet, in 2012, then, in 2013, ''Occupy: Reflections on Class War, Rebellion and Solidarity''. Both were published by [[Zuccotti Park Press]]. His analysis included a critique that attributed Occupy's growth as a response to a perceived abandonment of the interests of the white working class by the Democratic Party.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2012/jul/06/noam-chomsky-occupy-movement-spark-video|title=Noam Chomsky: 'The Occupy movement just lit a spark' – video|last=Younge|first=Gary|date=2012-07-06|last2=Hogue|first2=Kat Keene|newspaper=The Guardian|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|last3=theguardian.com|access-date=2016-04-22}}</ref>
 
In late 2015, Chomsky announced his support for [[Vermont]] U.S. senator [[Bernie Sanders]] in the upcoming [[United States presidential election, 2016|2016 United States presidential election]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jun/19/bernie-sanders-profile-democrat-presidential-candidate|title=Inside the mind of Bernie Sanders: unbowed, unchanged, and unafraid of a good fight|work=The Guardian|date=June 19, 2015|archive-url=//web.archive.org/web/20160117082624/www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jun/19/bernie-sanders-profile-democrat-presidential-candidate|archive-date=January 17, 2016|dead-url=no|first=Paul|last=Lewis|location=London|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
 
In early 2016, Chomsky was publicly rebuked by President [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] of Turkey after he signed an [[open letter]] condemning the Turkish leader for his [[Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–present)#2015 PKK rebellion|anti-Kurdish repression]] and supporting terrorism.<ref name="erdogan">{{Cite news|title = Chomsky hits back at Erdoğan, accusing him of double standards on terrorism|url = http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/jan/14/chomsky-hits-back-erdogan-double-standards-terrorism-bomb-istanbul|newspaper = The Guardian|date = 14 January 2016|access-date = 14 January 2016|issn = |language = |first = Matthew|last = Weaver}}</ref> Chomsky accused Erdoğan of [[hypocrisy]] and added that the Turkish president supports [[al-Qaeda]]'s Syrian affiliate,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-crisis-turkey-and-saudi-arabia-shock-western-countries-by-supporting-antiassad-jihadists-10242747.html |title=Turkey and Saudi Arabia alarm the West by backing Islamist extremists the Americans had bombed in Syria |author=Kim Sengupta |newspaper=The Independent |date=12 May 2015}}</ref> the [[al-Nusra Front]].<ref name="erdogan" />
 
In 2016, Chomsky released a documentary, entitled [[Requiem for the American Dream]], that summarized his views on capitalism and economic inequality through a "75-minute teach-in".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/29/movies/review-noam-chomsky-focuses-on-financial-inequality.html|title=Review: Noam Chomsky Focuses on Financial Inequality in ‘Requiem for the American Dream’|last=Gold|first=Daniel M.|date=2016-01-28|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|access-date=2016-06-01}}</ref>
 
Chomsky has criticized Washington's close ties with [[Saudi Arabia]] and U.S. involvement in [[Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen]], saying "Saudi Arabia itself has one of the most grotesque human rights records in the world. ... And it is strongly backed by the United States and its allies, Britain and France. Reason? It’s got a lot of oil. It’s got a lot of money. You can sell them a lot of arms, I think tens of billions of dollars of arms. And the actions that it’s carrying out, for example, in Yemen ... are causing an immense humanitarian catastrophe in a pretty poor country, also stimulating jihadi terrorism, naturally, with U.S. and also British arms."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democracynow.org/2016/5/17/chomsky_saudi_arabia_is_the_center |title=Chomsky: Saudi Arabia is the "Center of Radical Islamic Extremism" Now Spreading Among Sunni Muslims |date=May 17, 2016|newspaper=[[Democracy Now!]]}}</ref>
 
==Linguistic theory==
{{Quote box|width=246px|align=left|quote=“What started as purely linguistic research... has led, through involvement in political causes and an identification with an older philosophic tradition, to no less than an attempt to formulate an overall theory of man. The roots of this are manifest in the linguistic theory... The discovery of cognitive structures common to the human race but only to humans (species specific), leads quite easily to thinking of unalienable human attributes.”|source=[[Edward Marcotte]] on Chomsky's linguistic theory<ref name="MTCW">{{Cite web|title = Noam Chomsky|url = https://chomsky.info/1991____-2/|website = chomsky.info|accessdate = 2015-12-21|publisher = Major Twentieth Century Writers|year = 1991}}</ref>}}
Within the field of linguistics, Chomsky is credited with inaugurating the '[[cognitive revolution]]'.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=5}} He is largely responsible for establishing the field as a formal, [[natural science]],{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=9}} moving it away from the procedural form of [[structural linguistics]] that was dominant during the mid-20th century.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|pp=9&ndash;10}} As such, he has become known as "the father of modern linguistics".<ref>{{Cite news|title = A Changed Noam Chomsky Simplifies|url = http://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/05/arts/a-changed-noam-chomsky-simplifies.html|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 1998-12-05|access-date = 2016-02-22|issn = 0362-4331|first = Margalit|last = Fox|quote = Mr. Chomsky... is the father of modern linguistics and remains the field's most influential practitioner.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Noam Chomsky {{!}} MIT150 {{!}} Massachusetts Institute of Technology 150th anniversary|url = https://mit150.mit.edu/infinite-history/noam-chomsky|website = mit150.mit.edu|accessdate = 2015-10-24|quote = Noam Chomsky is an Institute Professor and professor of linguistics emeritus at MIT, widely known as the father of modern linguistics, a philosopher, prolific author, and globally influential political activist.}}</ref>
 
The basis to Chomsky's linguistic theory is rooted in [[biolinguistics]], holding that the principles underlying the structure of language are biologically determined in the human mind and hence genetically transmitted.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=4|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2pp=2&ndash;3}} He therefore argues that all humans share the same underlying linguistic structure, irrespective of sociocultural differences.{{sfn|Lyons|1978|p=7}} In adopting this position, Chomsky rejects the [[radical behaviorism|radical behaviorist]] psychology of B.F. Skinner which views the mind as a ''[[tabula rasa]]'' ("blank slate") and thus treats language as learned behavior.{{sfn|Lyons|1978|p=6}} Accordingly, he argues that language is a unique evolutionary development of the human species and is unlike modes of communication used by any other animal species.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=6|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2pp=2&ndash;3}}<ref name="McGill">{{Cite web|title = Tool Module: Chomsky’s Universal Grammar|url = http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/outil_rouge06.html|website = thebrain.mcgill.ca|accessdate = 2015-12-24}}</ref> Chomsky's [[Psychological nativism|nativist]], internalist view of language is consistent with the philosophical school of '[[rationalism]]', and is contrasted with the anti-nativist, externalist view of language, which is consistent with the philosophical school of '[[empiricism]]'.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=11}}<ref name="MTCW"/>
 
===Universal grammar===
{{Main article|Universal grammar}}
{{Quote box|width=246px|align=right|quote="[Chomsky's] vision of a complex universe within the mind, governed by myriad rules and prohibitions and yet infinite in its creative potential, opens up vistas possibly as important as Einstein’s theories."|source=[[Daniel Yergin]] in ''[[The New York Times Magazine]]''<ref name="MTCW" />}}
 
The Chomskyan approach towards linguistics studies grammar as an innate body of knowledge possessed by language users, often termed '''Universal Grammar''' (UG).<ref>{{Harvnb|Lehmann|1982|p=[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cSUahZXGYFcC&pg=PA80 80]}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Thornbury|first1=Scott|title=An A-Z of ELT (Methodology)|date=2006|publisher=Macmillan Education|location=Oxford|page=130}}</ref> Since the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that syntactic knowledge is at least partially inborn, implying that children need only learn certain parochial features of their native languages.<ref name="aspects">{{Harvnb|Chomsky|1965}}.</ref> Chomsky based his argument on observations about human language acquisition, noting that there is an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the rich linguistic knowledge they attain (see: "[[poverty of the stimulus]]" argument). For example, although children are exposed to only a very small and scattered subset of the allowable syntactic variants within their first language, they somehow acquire the highly organized and systematic ability to understand and produce an infinite number of sentences, including ones that have never before been uttered. To explain this, Chomsky reasoned that the primary linguistic data (PLD) must be supplemented by an innate linguistic capacity. Furthermore, while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of [[inductive reasoning]], if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky labeled whatever relevant capacity the human has that the cat lacks as the [[language acquisition device]] (LAD), and he suggested that one of the tasks for linguistics should be to determine what the LAD is and what constraints it imposes on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that would result from these constraints constitute 'universal grammar'.<ref>{{cite web|author=Noam Chomsky |url=http://www.chomsky.info/books/architecture01.htm |title=The 'Chomskyan Era' (Excerpted from The Architecture of Language) |publisher=Chomsky.info |date= |accessdate=August 16, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Thornbury|first1=Scott|title=An A-Z of ELT (Methodology)|date=2006|publisher=Macmillan Education|location=Oxford|page=234}}</ref>
 
{| class=wikitable style="float:left"
|+ Different grammatical [[surface structure]]s of a sentence
| [[File:Time flies 1.svg|x100px]] || [[File:Time flies 2.svg|x100px]]
|-
| [[File:Time flies 3.svg|x100px]] || [[File:Time flies 4.svg|x100px]]
|}
 
===Transformational generative grammar===
{{Main article|Transformational generative grammar}}
Beginning with his ''[[Syntactic Structures]]'' (1957), a distillation of his ''Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory'' (1955), Chomsky challenges [[structural linguistics]] and introduces [[transformational grammar]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kordić, Snježana |authorlink=Snježana Kordić |title=Transformacijsko-generativni pristup jeziku u ''Sintaktičkim strukturama'' i ''Aspektima teorije sintakse'' Noama Chomskog |trans_title=Transformational-generative approach to language in ''Syntactic structures'' and ''Aspects of the theory of syntax'' of Noam Chomsky |url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/446914.Transformacijsko-generativni_pristup.PDF |deadurl=no |language=Serbo-Croatian |journal=SOL: lingvistički časopis |location=Zagreb |volume=6 |issue=12–13 |pages=103–112 |year=1991 |issn=0352-8715 |id={{ZDB|1080348-8}} |archivedate=September 2, 2012 | archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6ANNlKB4s |accessdate=May 15, 2015}} [http://opak.crolib.hr/cgi-bin/unicat.cgi?form=D1941130086 (CROLIB)]</ref>
 
Chomsky's theory posits that language consists of both '''deep structures''' and '''surface structures'''. [[Surface structure]] 'faces out' and is represented by spoken utterances, while [[deep structure]] 'faces inward' and expresses the underlying relations between words and conceptual meaning. Transformational grammar is a [[generative grammar]] (which dictates that the syntax, or word order, of surface structures adheres to certain principles and parameters) that consists of a limited series of rules, expressed in mathematical notation, which transform deep structures into well-formed surface structures. The transformational grammar thus relates meaning and sound.<ref name="MTCW" /><ref>{{Cite web|title = Noam Chomsky|url = https://chomsky.info/2004____/|website = chomsky.info|accessdate = 2015-12-27|first = Zoltán Gendler|last = Szabó|publisher = Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers, 1860–1960|editor-first = Ernest|editor-last = LePore|year = 2004|location = Bristol}}</ref>
 
[[Image:Chomsky-hierarchy.svg|thumb|right|185px|alt=The Chomsky hierarchy|Set inclusions described by the Chomsky hierarchy]]
 
===Chomsky hierarchy===
{{Main article|Chomsky hierarchy}}
 
The '''Chomsky hierarchy''', sometimes referred to as the '''Chomsky-Schützenberger hierarchy''', is a containment hierarchy of classes of [[formal grammars]]. The hierarchy imposes a logical structure across different language classes and provides a basis for understanding the relationship between grammars (devices that enumerate the valid sentences within languages). In order of increasing expressive power it includes regular (or Type-3) grammars, context-free (or Type-2) grammars, context-sensitive (or Type-1) grammars, and recursively enumerable (or Type-0) grammars. Each class is a strict subset of the class above it, i.e., each successive class can generate a broader set of [[formal languages]] (infinite sets of strings composed from finite sets of symbols, or alphabets) than the one below.<ref name=":522">{{cite web
| url = https://www.cs.wmich.edu/~bhardin/cs4850/ChomskyPresentation.pdf
| title = The Chomsky Hierarchy
| website = cs.wmich.edu
| accessdate = 29 February 2016
| author = Robert Hardin
}}</ref> In addition to being important in linguistics, the Chomsky hierarchy is also relevant in [[theoretical computer science]], especially in [[programming language theory]],<ref name=":222">{{cite book
| title = Selected Papers on Computer Languages
| date = 2002
| publisher = Center for the Study of Language and Information
| isbn = 978-1-57586-381-8
| chapter = Preface
| last1 = Knuth
| first1 = Donald
}}</ref> [[compiler]] construction, and [[automata theory]].<ref>{{cite book
| title = Computability, complexity, and languages: fundamentals of theoretical computer science
| last2 = Weyuker
| first2 = Elaine J.
| last3 = Sigal
| first3 = Ron
| publisher = Academic Press, Harcourt, Brace
| year = 1994
| isbn = 978-0-12-206382-4
| edition = 2nd
| location = Boston
| page = 327
| author-link2 = Elaine Weyuker
| last1 = Davis
| first1 = Martin
| author-link1 = Martin Davis
}}</ref>
 
===Minimalist program===
{{Main article|Minimalist program}}
Since the 1990s, much of Chomsky’s research has focused on what he calls the '''Minimalist Program''' (MP), in which he departs from much of his past research and instead attempts to simplify language into a system that relates meaning and sound using the minimum possible faculties that could be expected, given certain external conditions that are imposed on us independently. Chomsky dispenses with concepts such as 'deep structure' and 'surface structure' and instead places emphasis on the plasticity of the brain's neural circuits, along with which comes an infinite number of concepts, or '[[Logical Form]]s.' When exposed to linguistic data, the brain of a hearer-speaker then proceeds to associate sound and meaning, and the rules of grammar that we observe are in fact only the consequences, or side effects, of the way that language works. Thus, while much of Chomsky's prior research has focused on the rules of language, he now focuses on the mechanisms that the brain uses to ''create'' these rules.<ref name="McGill" /><ref>{{Cite news|title = A Changed Noam Chomsky Simplifies|url = http://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/05/arts/a-changed-noam-chomsky-simplifies.html|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 1998-12-05|access-date = 2016-02-22|issn = 0362-4331|first = Margalit|last = Fox}}</ref>
 
==Political views==
{{Main article|Political positions of Noam Chomsky}}
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote="The second major area to which Chomsky has contributed - and surely the best known in terms of the number of people in his audience and the ease of understanding what he writes and says - is his work on sociopolitical analysis, political, social, and economic history, and critical assessment of current political circumstance. In Chomsky's view, while those in power might - and do - try to obscure their intentions and defend their actions in ways that make them acceptable to citizens, it is easy for anyone who is willing to be critical and consider the facts to discern what they are up to."|source=[[James McGilvray]], 2014{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=12}} }}
 
Chomsky's political views have changed little since his childhood,{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=95|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2p=4}} when he was influenced by the emphasis on political activism that was ingrained in Jewish working-class tradition.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=77}} He usually identifies as an [[anarcho-syndicalism|anarcho-syndicalist]] and/or a [[libertarian socialist]].{{sfnm|1a1=Sperlich|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2p=17}} He views these positions not as precise political theories but as ideals which he thinks best meet the needs of humans: liberty, community, and freedom of association.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=17}} Unlike some other socialists, such as those who accept [[Marxism]], Chomsky believes that politics lies outside the remit of [[science]].{{sfnm|1a1=Sperlich|1y=2006|1p=74|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2p=16}}
 
The key thrust behind much of Chomsky's political world-view is the idea that the truth about political realities are systematically distorted or suppressed through the manipulation of corporate interests and elites, while his work has focused on revealing these manipulations.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=8}} He believes that "[[common sense]]" is all that is required to break through the web of falsehood and see the truth, if it is employed using both [[critical thinking]] skills and an awareness of the role that self-interest and self-deception plays on both oneself and on others.{{sfnm|1a1=Sperlich|1y=2006|1p=74|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2pp=12&ndash;13}}
 
Although he had joined protest marches and organized activist groups, he identifies his primarily political outlet as being that of education, offering free lessons and lectures to encourage wider political consciousness.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=71}} He is a member of the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] international union.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iww.org/en/history/biography |website=Industrial Workers of the World |title=IWW Biography |accessdate=May 9, 2016 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317022105/http://www.iww.org/history/biography |archivedate=March 17, 2016 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Chomsky is also a member of the interim consultative committee of the International Organization for a Participatory Society, which he describes as having the potential to "carry us a long way towards unifying the many initiatives here and around the world and molding them into a powerful and effective force."<ref>[http://www.iopsociety.org/interim-committee International Organization for a Participatory Society&nbsp;– Interim Committee] Retrieved March 31, 2012</ref>
 
=== United States foreign policy ===
Chomsky believes that the basic principle of the [[foreign policy of the United States]] is the establishment of "open societies" which are economically and politically controlled by the U.S. and where U.S.-based businesses can prosper.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=92}} He believes that 'official,' sanctioned historical accounts of U.S. and British imperialism have consistently whitewashed these nations' actions in order to present them as having benevolent motives in either spreading democracy or, in older instances spreading [[Christianity]]; criticizing these accounts, he seeks to correct them.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=13}} Prominent examples that he regularly cites are the actions of the [[British Empire]] in India and Africa, and the actions of the U.S. in Vietnam, the Philippines, Latin America, and the Middle East.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=13}}
 
{{Anarchism sidebar |expanded=People}}
 
Part of the reason why he focuses most of his criticism on the U.S. is because during his lifetime the country has militarily and economically dominated the world, and because its [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] electoral system allows for the citizenry to exert an influence on government policy.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=14}} His hope is that by spreading awareness of the negative impact that imperialism has on the populations affected by it, he can sway the population of the U.S. and other countries into opposing government policies that are imperialist in their nature.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=13}} He urges people to criticize the motivations, decisions, and actions of their governments, to accept responsibility for one's own thoughts and actions, and to apply the same standards to others as one would apply to oneself.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=18}}
 
===Capitalism, socialism, and the United States===
In his youth, Chomsky developed a dislike of [[capitalism]] and the [[selfishness|selfish]] pursuit of material advancement.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=15}} At the same time he developed a disdain for the [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] attempts to establish a socialist society, as represented by the likes of the [[Leninism]] and [[Stalinism]] of the [[USSR]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=168|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=16}} Chomsky believes that libertarian socialism should "properly be regarded as the inheritor of the liberal ideas of the Enlightenment,"{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=89}} arguing that his ideological position revolves around "nourishing the libertarian and creative character of the human being."{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=95}} He has stated his opposition to ruling elites, among them institutions like the [[IMF]], [[World Bank]], and [[GATT]].{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=211}}
 
Chomsky highlights that since the 1970s, the U.S. has become increasingly economically unequal as a result of the repeal of various financial regulations and the rescindment of the [[Bretton Woods system|Bretton Woods financial control]] agreements.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=14}} He characterizes the U.S. as a ''de facto'' [[one-party state]], viewing both the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] and [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] as manifestations of a single "Business Party" controlled by corporate and financial interests.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|pp=14&ndash;15}} Chomsky highlights that within Western capitalist liberal democracies, at least 80% of the population has no control over economic decisions, which are instead in the hands of a management class and ultimately controlled by a small, wealthy elite.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=15}}
 
Noting that this economic system is firmly entrenched and difficult to overthrow, he believes that change is possible through the organized co-operation of large numbers of people who understand the problem and know how they want to re-organize the economy in a more equitable way.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=15}} Although acknowledging that corporate domination of media and government stifle any significant change to this system, he sees reason for optimism, citing the historical examples of the social rejection of [[slavery]] as immoral, the advances in women's rights, and the forcing of government to justify invasions to illustrate how change is possible.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=14}} He views violent revolution to overthrow a government as a last resort to be avoided if possible, citing the example of historical revolutions where the population's welfare has worsened as a result of the upheaval.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=15}}
 
=== Israeli-Palestinian conflict ===
With regard to the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|Israel-Palestine conflict]], Chomsky has long endorsed the left binationalist program, seeking to create a democratic state in the [[Levant]] that is home to both Jews and Arabs.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=170|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=76–77}} However, acknowledging the [[realpolitik]] of the situation, Chomsky has also considered a [[two-state solution]] on the condition that both nation-states exist on equal terms.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=97}} As a result of his criticisms of Israel, Chomsky was barred from entering Israel in 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/16/israel-noam-chomsky-palestinian-west-bank|title=Noam Chomsky barred by Israelis from lecturing in Palestinian West Bank|last=Pilkington|first=Ed|date=2010-05-16|website=the Guardian|access-date=2016-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/18/world/middleeast/18chomsky.html|title=Israel Roiled After Chomsky Barred From West Bank|last=Bronner|first=Ethan|date=2010-05-17|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|access-date=2016-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2010/05/201051904343834346.html|title=Israel: Chomsky ban 'big mistake'|website=www.aljazeera.com|access-date=2016-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.democracynow.org/2010/5/17/denied_entry_israel_blocks_noam_chomsky|title=Denied Entry: Israel Blocks Noam Chomsky from Entering West Bank to Deliver Speech|website=Democracy Now!|access-date=2016-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/05/17/noam-chomsky-denied-entry_0_n_578285.html|title=Noam Chomsky Denied Entry To Israel|date=2016-01-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114172540/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/05/17/noam-chomsky-denied-entry_0_n_578285.html|archive-date=2016-01-14|access-date=2016-05-04}}</ref>
 
=== News media and propaganda ===
{{Main article|Propaganda model}}
Chomsky's political writings have largely been focused with the two concepts of [[ideology]] and [[power (social and political)|power]], or the media and state policy.{{sfn|Rai|1995|pp=20}} One of Chomsky's most well-known works, ''Manufacturing Consent'', dissects the media's role in reinforcing and acquiescing to state policies, across the political spectrum, while marginalizing contrary perspectives. Chomsky claims that this 'free-market' version of censorship is more subtle and difficult to undermine than the equivalent propaganda system which was present in the [[Soviet Union]].{{sfn|Rai|1995|pp=37–38}} Whereas the opposition is given the opportunity to voice dissent, this dissent is heavily constrained by the reality of having to contend in a corporate environment, where, for example, advertising largely determines a media outlet's success. While freedom of speech and the press appear to be guaranteed, mass media can only be produced by extremely wealthy enterprises. As a result, the interests which are represented in the media reflect the interests of those who are providing it with the greatest amount of the funding.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}
 
Chomsky considers most [[conspiracy theories]] to be fruitless, distracting substitutes to thinking about [[policy | policy formation]] in an institutional framework, where individual manipulation is secondary to broader social imperatives.{{sfn|Rai|1995|pp=70}} He does not dismiss [[conspiracy theories]] outright, but he does consider them unproductive to challenging [[power (social and political)|power]] in a substantial way.
In response to the labeling of his own thoughts as "conspiracy theory," Chomsky has replied that it is very rational for the media to manipulate information in order to sell it, like any other business. He asks whether [[General Motors]] would be accused of conspiracy if they deliberately selected what they would use or discard in order to sell their product.{{sfn|Rai|1995|pp=42}}
 
==Philosophy==
{{Quote box|width=246px|align=left|quote="Chomsky’s intellectual life had been divided between his work in linguistics and his political activism, philosophy coming as a distant third. Nonetheless, his influence among analytic philosophers has been enormous... he has persistently defended his views against all takers, engaging in important debates with many of the major figures in analytic philosophy throughout his career."|source=Zoltán Gendler Szabó, 2004<ref>{{Cite web|title = Noam Chomsky|url = https://chomsky.info/2004____/|website = chomsky.info|accessdate = 2015-12-27|first = Zoltán Gendler|last = Szabó|publisher = Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers, 1860-1960|editor-first = Ernest|editor-last = LePore|year = 2004|location = Bristol}}</ref>}}
 
Chomsky has also been active in a number of philosophical fields, including the [[philosophy of mind]], the [[philosophy of language]], and the [[philosophy of science]].{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=19}} In these fields he has been highly critical of many other philosophers, in particular those operating within the field of [[cognitive science]].{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=19}}
 
==Personal life==
Chomsky endeavors to keep his family life, linguistic scholarship, and political activism strictly separate from one another,{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=158|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=19}} calling himself "scrupulous at keeping my politics out of the classroom."{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=121}} An intensely private person,{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=7}} he is uninterested in appearances and the fame that his work has brought him.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=116}} He also has little interest in modern art and music.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=206–207}} He reads four or five newspapers daily; in the U.S., he subscribes to the ''[[The Boston Globe]]'', ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', ''[[Financial Times]]'', and ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]''.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=121}} He acknowledges that his income and the financial security that it accords him means that he lives a privileged life in comparison to the majority of the world's population.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=9}} He characterizes himself as a "[[Workforce|worker]]," albeit one who uses his intellect as his employable skill.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=6}}
 
Despite having been raised Jewish, Chomsky is currently [[Irreligious|non-religious]], although he has expressed approval of forms of religion such as [[liberation theology]].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=69}} He is known for his "dry, laconic wit," and has attracted controversy for labeling established political and academic figures with terms like "corrupt," "fascist," and "fraudulent."{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=199}} Chomsky's colleague [[Steven Pinker]] has said that he "portrays people who disagree with him as stupid or evil, using withering scorn in his rhetoric," and that this contributes to the extreme reactions that he generates from his critics.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/jan/20/society.politics|title=The Guardian Profile: Noam Chomsky|last=Jaggi|first=Maya|date=2001-01-20|website=the Guardian|access-date=2016-05-11}}</ref> Bruce Nevin cautions that such complaints could be "no more than the discontent of poor losers thwarted by a brilliant mind."<ref>{{Harvnb|Nevin|2010|p=[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268872757_Noam_and_Zellig 106]}}.</ref> Chomsky avoids attending [[academic conferences]], including left-oriented ones such as the Socialist Scholars Conference, preferring to speak to activist groups or hold university seminars for mass audiences.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=169}}
 
Chomsky was married to [[Carol Chomsky|Carol Doris Schatz (Chomsky)]] from 1949 until her death in 2008.<ref>{{Cite news|title = Carol Chomsky, 78, Linguist and Educator, Dies|url = http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/21/us/21chomsky-carol.html|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 2008-12-20|access-date = 2015-12-10|issn = 0362-4331|first = Margalit|last = Fox}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Marquard |first=Bryan |title=Carol Chomsky; at 78; Harvard language professor was wife of MIT linguist |publisher=Boston Globe |date=December 20, 2008 |url=http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2008/12/20/carol_chomsky_at_78_harvard_language_professor_was_wife_of_mit_linguist/ |accessdate=December 20, 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20081223030802/http://www.boston.com:80/news/education/higher/articles/2008/12/20/carol_chomsky_at_78_harvard_language_professor_was_wife_of_mit_linguist/ |archivedate=December 23, 2008 }}</ref> They had three children together: [[Aviva Chomsky|Aviva]] (b.1957), Diane (b.1960), and Harry (b.1967).{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=22}} In 2014, Chomsky married Valeria Wasserman.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.democracynow.org/2015/3/3/noam_chomsky_on_life_love_still|title=Noam Chomsky on Life & Love: Still Going at 86, Renowned Dissident is Newly Married|date=2015-03-03|website=Democracy Now!|access-date=2016-05-11}}</ref>
 
==Reception and influence==
 
{{Quote box|width=246px|align=right|quote="[Chomsky's] voice is heard in academia beyond linguistics and philosophy: from computer science to neuroscience, from anthropology to education, mathematics and literary criticism. If we include Chomsky's political activism then the boundaries become quite blurred, and it comes as no surprise that Chomsky is increasingly seen as enemy number one by those who inhabit that wide sphere of reactionary discourse and action."|source=Sperlich, 2006{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=60}}}}
Chomsky's legacy is as both a "leader in the field" of linguistics and "a figure of enlightenment and inspiration" for [[political dissent]]ers.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=191}} Despite his academic success, his political viewpoints and activism have resulted in him being distrusted by the mainstream media apparatus, and he is regarded as being "on the outer margin of acceptability."{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=24}}
 
===In academia===
 
Linguist John Lyons remarked that within a few decades of publication, Chomskyan linguistics had become "the most dynamic and influential" school of thought in the field.{{sfn|Lyons|1978|p=2}} By the 1970s, his work had also come to exert a considerable influence on philosophy,{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=42}} while a poll conducted by [[Minnesota State University Moorhead|Minnesota State University]] found ''Syntactic Structures'' to be the single most important work in the field of [[cognitive science]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = The Cognitive Science Millennium Project|url = http://web.mnstate.edu/schwartz/cogsci100.htm|website = web.mnstate.edu|accessdate = 2015-11-29}}</ref> In addition, his work in [[automata theory]] <nowiki/>and the Chomsky hierarchy has become well known in [[computer science]], and he is much cited within the field of [[computational linguistics]].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=39}}<ref>{{cite book | authorlink = Michael Sipser | author = Michael Sipser | year = 1997 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation | publisher = PWS Publishing | isbn = 0-534-94728-X }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title = Knuth: Selected Papers on Computer Languages|url = http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/cl.html|website = www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu|accessdate = 2015-12-05}}</ref>
 
Chomsky's work contributed substantially to the decline of [[behaviorist psychology]];<ref>{{cite web|url = http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/|title = Behaviorism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)|publisher = |date = |accessdate = 2014-07-11|website = plato.stanford.edu}}</ref> in addition, some arguments in [[evolutionary psychology]] are derived from his research results.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lecture 6: Evolutionary Psychology, Problem Solving, and 'Machiavellian' Intelligence|publisher=Massey University|work=School of Psychology|year=1996|url=http://evolution.massey.ac.nz/lecture6/lect600.htm|accessdate=September 4, 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070117055247/http://evolution.massey.ac.nz/lecture6/lect600.htm |archivedate = January 17, 2007}}</ref> [[Nim Chimpsky]], a chimpanzee who was the subject of a study in [[animal language acquisition]] at Columbia University, was named after Chomsky in reference to his view of language acquisition as a uniquely human ability.<ref>{{cite book |first = Gregory|last = Radick|title = The Simian Tongue: The Long Debate about Animal Language|publisher = University of Chicago Press|year = 2007|page = 320}}</ref>
 
The 1984 Nobel Prize laureate in Medicine and Physiology, [[Niels Kaj Jerne]], used Chomsky's generative model to explain the human immune system, equating "components of a generative grammar… with various features of protein structures." The title of Jerne's Stockholm Nobel Lecture was "The Generative Grammar of the Immune System."<ref name=":5">{{cite web
| url = http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1984/jerne-lecture.pdf
| title = The Generative Grammar of the Immune System
| website = nobelprize.org
| accessdate = 19 August 2013
| author = Niels K. Jerne
}}</ref> His theory of generative grammar has also carried over into [[music theory]] and [[musical analysis|analysis]].<ref>Baroni, M. and Callegari, L. (1982) Eds., Musical grammars and computer analysis. Leo S. Olschki Editore: Firenze, 201–218.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = A Generative Grammar for Jazz Chord Sequences|url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/40285282|journal = Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal|date = 1984-10-01|pages = 52–77|volume = 2|issue = 1|doi = 10.2307/40285282|first = Mark J.|last = Steedman}}</ref><ref>Rohrmeier, Martin (2007). A generative grammar approach to diatonic harmonic structure. In Spyridis, Georgaki, Kouroupetroglou, Anagnostopoulou (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th Sound and Music Computing Conference, 97–100. http://smc07.uoa.gr/SMC07%20Proceedings/SMC07%20Paper%2015.pdf</ref>
 
An MIT press release found that Chomsky was cited within the [[Arts and Humanities Citation Index]] more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992.<ref>{{cite news |title=Chomsky is Citation Champ|publisher=[[MIT]] News Office|date=April 15, 1992|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1992/citation-0415.html|accessdate=September 3, 2007}}</ref>
 
===In politics===
[[File:Bolivian Vice President Alvaro Garcia Linera with Noam Chomsky in NYC (8997197336).jpg|thumb|left|Bolivian Vice President [[Álvaro García Linera]] with Noam Chomsky in New York, 8 June 2013]]
Chomsky biographer Wolfgang B. Sperlich characterizes the linguist and activist as "one of the most notable contemporary champions of the people,"{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=7}} while journalist [[John Pilger]] described him as a "genuine people's hero; an inspiration for struggles all over the world for that basic decency known as freedom. To a lot of people in the margins – activists and movements – he's unfailingly supportive."<ref name="Jaggi"/> [[Arundhati Roy]] called him "one of the greatest, most radical public thinkers of our time,"{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=114}} and [[Edward Said]] thought him to be "one of the most significant challengers of unjust power and delusions."<ref name="Jaggi">{{cite web |title=Conscience of a nation |author=Maya Jaggi |website=The Guardian |date=January 20, 2001 |url=http://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/jan/20/society.politics |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111052153/http://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/jan/20/society.politics |archivedate=January 11, 2015 }}</ref> [[Fred Halliday]] stated that by the start of the 21st century, Chomsky had become a "guru" for the world's anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements.<ref name="Jaggi"/> The propaganda model of media criticism that he and Herman developed has been widely accepted in radical media critiques and adopted to some level in mainstream criticism of the media,{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=129}} also exerting a significant influence on the growth of [[alternative media]], including radio, publishers, and the Internet, which in turn have helped to disseminate his work.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=142}}
 
{{Quote box|width=246px|align=right|quote="[Chomsky's] become the guru of the new anti-capitalist and Third World movements. They take his views very uncritically; it's part of the Seattle mood – whatever America does is wrong. He confronts orthodoxy but he's becoming a big simplifier. What he can't see is Third World and other regimes that are oppressive and not controlled by America."|source=[[Fred Halliday]], 2001<ref name="Jaggi"/> }}
 
However, Sperlich notes that Chomsky has been vilified by corporate interests, particularly in the mainstream press.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=10}} University departments devoted to history and political science rarely include Chomsky's work on their syllabuses for undergraduate reading.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=153–154}} German newspaper ''[[Der Spiegel]]'' described him as "the Ayatollah of anti-American hatred,"{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=10}} while [[American conservatism|conservative]] commentator [[David Horowitz]] termed him "the most devious, the most dishonest and... the most treacherous intellect in America," one whose work was infused with an "anti-American dementia" and which evidences Chomsky's "pathological hatred of his own country."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Sick Mind of Noam Chomsky |author=David Horowitz |website=Salon |date=September 26, 2001 |url=http://www.salon.com/2001/09/26/treason_2/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506041118/http://www.salon.com/2001/09/26/treason_2 |archivedate=May 6, 2013 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Writing in ''[[Commentary (magazine)|Commentary]]'' magazine, the journalist [[Jonathan Kay]] described Chomsky as "a hard-boiled anti-American monomaniac who simply refuses to believe anything that any American leader says."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Monomania of an Anti-American Prophet |author=Jonathan Kay |date=May 12, 2011 |website=Commentary |url=https://www.commentarymagazine.com/culture-civilization/noam-chomskys-monomanical-antiamericanism/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107055440/https://www.commentarymagazine.com/culture-civilization/noam-chomskys-monomanical-antiamericanism/ |archivedate=January 7, 2016 |deadurl=no}}</ref>
 
His criticism of Israel has led to him being accused of being a traitor to the Jewish people and an [[anti-Semitism|anti-Semite]].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=100}} Criticizing Chomsky's defense of the right of individuals to engage in Holocaust denial on the grounds that freedom of speech must be extended to all viewpoints, [[Werner Cohn]] accused Chomsky of being "the most important patron" of the [[Neo-Nazism|Neo-Nazi]] movement,{{sfn|Cohn|1995|p=37}} while the [[Anti-Defamation League]] (ADL) accused him of being a Holocaust denier himself.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=101}} [[Alan Dershowitz]] considered Chomsky to be a "false prophet of the left",{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=170}} while Chomsky has accused Dershowitz of being on "a crazed jihad, dedicating much of his life to trying to destroy my reputation".{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=171}} ''[[The Electronic Intifada]]'' website claims that the Anti-Defamation League "spied on" Chomsky's appearances, and quotes Chomsky as being unsurprised at that discovery or the use of what Chomsky claims is "fantasy material" provided to Dershowitz for debating him. Amused, Chomsky compares the ADL's reports to FBI files.<ref>{{cite web |last= Winstanley |first= Asa |date= 17 May 2013 |title= Secret files reveal Anti-Defamation League spied on Noam Chomsky |url= http://electronicintifada.net/blogs/asa-winstanley/secret-files-reveal-anti-defamation-league-spied-noam-chomsky |publisher= [[The Electronic Intifada|electronicintifada.net]] |accessdate= 17 May 2013 }}</ref> The ADL have also characterised him as a "dupe of intellectual pride so overweening that he is incapable of making distinctions between totalitarian and democratic societies, between oppressors and victims."{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=101}} In turn, Chomsky has claimed that the ADL is dominated by "Stalinist types" who oppose democracy in Israel.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=100}}
 
His far-reaching criticisms of U.S. foreign policy and the legitimacy of U.S. power have raised controversy.<ref>{{cite web|last=Flint|first=Anthony|title=Divided Legacy|publisher=''[[The Boston Globe]]''|date=November 19, 1995|url=http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/19951119.htm|accessdate=September 4, 2007|quote=Ask this intellectual radical why he is shunned by the mainstream, and he'll say that established powers have never been able to handle his brand of dissent.}}</ref> A document obtained pursuant to a [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] (FOIA) request from the U.S. government revealed that the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) monitored Chomsky's activities and for years denied doing so. The CIA also destroyed its files on Chomsky at some point in time, possibly in violation of federal law.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.salon.com/2013/08/13/cia_finally_admits_to_spying_on_chomsky/|title=CIA finally admits to spying on Chomsky|last=Lennard|first=Natasha|website=Salon|access-date=2016-04-29}}</ref> He has often received undercover police protection at MIT and when speaking on the Middle East, although he has refused uniformed police protection.<ref name="Rabbani interview">{{Harvnb|Rabbani|2012}}.</ref>
 
===Academic achievements, awards, and honors===
 
== Kratka biografija ==
In 1970, Chomsky was named one of the "makers of the twentieth century" by ''[[The London Times]]''.<ref name="MTCW" /> In early 1969, he delivered the [[John Locke Lectures]] at [[Oxford University]]; in January 1971, the [[Bertrand Russell]] Memorial Lecture at the [[University of Cambridge]], titled "Problems of Knowledge and Freedom"; in 1972, the [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]] Memorial Lecture in [[New Delhi]];<ref name="MIT">{{Cite web|title = Noam Chomsky|url = http://chomsky.info/2002____/|website = chomsky.info|publisher = MIT Linguistics Program|accessdate = 2015-12-09}}</ref> in 1975, the [[Whidden Lectures]] at [[McMaster University]], titled "Reflections on Language";{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=156}} in 1977, the [[Huizinga Lecture]] in [[Leiden]], titled "Intellectuals and the State"; in 1978, the Woodbridge Lectures at [[Columbia University]]; in 1979, the Kant Lectures at [[Stanford University]];<ref name="MIT" /> in 1988, the [[Massey Lectures]] at the [[University of Toronto]], titled "Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies"; in 1997, The Davie Memorial Lecture on Academic Freedom in [[Cape Town]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uct.ac.za/mondaypaper/archives/?id=4104 |title=Van Zyl Slabbert to present TB Davie Memorial Lecture |publisher=Uct.ac.za |date=October 13, 2003 |accessdate=August 16, 2011}}</ref> in 2011, the Rickman Godlee Lecture at [[University College, London]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://events.ucl.ac.uk/event/event:j1g-ghq3pwsr-swbpai/ |title=UCL – Events Calendar – UCL Rickman Godlee Lecture 2011 with Noam Chomsky: Contours of global order: Domination, stability, security in a changing world |publisher=Events.ucl.ac.uk |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> and many others.<ref name="MIT" />
 
Njegov otac dr. William Chomsky je emigrirao iz [[rusija|Rusije]] u SAD. Bavio su podučavanjem i historijom hebrejskog jezika. Noam Chomsky nastavlja bavljenje lingvistikom i 1955. počinje predavati na [[MIT]]–u.
Chomsky has received [[honorary degree]]s from many colleges and universities around the world, including from the following:
 
== Univerzalna gramatika ==
<!-- PLEASE RESPECT ALPHABETICAL ORDER -->
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[American University of Beirut]]<ref name="LENT">{{Cite book|title = Key Thinkers in Critical Communication Scholarship: From the Pioneers to the Next Generation|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fldOCgAAQBAJ|publisher = Palgrave Macmillan|date = 2015-08-05|isbn = 9781137463425|first = John A.|last = Lent|first2 = Michelle A.|last2 = Amazeen|page = 2}}</ref>
* [[Amherst College]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[Bard College]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[Central Connecticut State University]]<ref name="PBS">{{Cite web|title = Noam Chomsky on America's Foreign Policy|url = http://www.pbs.org/now/news/239.html|website = www.pbs.org|accessdate = 2015-12-09|first = NOW -|last = PBS}}</ref>
* [[Columbia University]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[Drexel University]]<ref>{{Cite web|title = Drexel Announces 2015 Honorary Degree Recipients – DrexelNow|url = http://drexel.edu/now/archive/2015/April/2015-Honorary-Degree-Recipients-/|website = DrexelNow|accessdate = 2015-12-09}}</ref>
* [[Georgetown University]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[Harvard University]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[International School for Advanced Studies]]<ref name="LENT" />
* [[Islamic University of Gaza]]<ref name="LENT" />
* [[Loyola University of Chicago]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[McGill University]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[National and Kapodistrian University of Athens]]<ref name="PBS" />
* [[National Autonomous University of Mexico]]<ref name="LENT" />
* [[National Tsing Hua University]]<ref name="LENT" />
* [[National University of Colombia]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[National University of Comahue]]<ref name="LENT" />
* [[Peking University]]<ref name="LENT" />
* [[Rovira i Virgili University]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[Santo Domingo Institute of Technology]]<ref name="LENT" />
* [[Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[Swarthmore College]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[University of Bologna]]<ref name="PBS" />
* [[University of Buenos Aires]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[University of Calcutta]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[University of Cambridge]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[University of Chicago]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[University of Chile]]<ref name="LENT" />
* [[University of Connecticut]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[University of Cyprus]]<ref name="LENT" />
* [[University of Florence]]<ref name="LENT" />
* [[University of La Frontera]]<ref name="LENT" />
* [[University of Ljubljana]]<ref name="LENT" />
* [[University of London]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[University of Massachusetts]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[University of Pennsylvania]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[University of St Andrews]]<ref name="LENT" />
* [[University of Toronto]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[University of Western Ontario]]<ref name="MIT" />
* [[Uppsala University]]<ref name="LENT" />
* [[Visva-Bharati University]]<ref name="MTCW" />
* [[Vrije Universiteit Brussel]]<ref name="PBS" />
{{div col end}}
 
U lingvistici je poznat po teoriji urođene univerzalne gramatike. U toj teoriji Chomsky tvrdi da su čovjeku urođeni obrasci [[gramatika|gramatike]] koji nisu obrasci samo za jedan određeni jezik, već su obrasci gramatike za sve ljudske jezike. Drugim riječima, jezična sposobnost je genetički uvjetovana.
In the United States, he is a member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]], the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]], the [[Linguistic Society of America]], the [[American Philosophical Association]], and the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]].<ref name="MTCW" /> Abroad, he is a member of the Utrecht Society of Arts and Sciences, the [[Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina]], a corresponding fellow of the [[British Academy]], an honorary member of the [[British Psychological Society]],<ref name="MTCW" /> and a foreign member of the Department of Social Sciences of the [[Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sanu.ac.rs/English/Clanstvo/Clan.aspx?arg=1401,|title=SASA Member|website=www.sanu.ac.rs|access-date=2016-05-10}}</ref> In addition, he is a recipient of a 1971 [[Guggenheim Fellowship]], the 1984 [[APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology|American Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology]], 1988 the [[Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences]],<ref name="MTCW" /> the 1996 [[Helmholtz Medal]], the 1999 [[Benjamin Franklin Medal (Franklin Institute)|Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science]], and the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award.<ref name="MIT" /> He is also a two-time winner of the Gustavus Myers Center Award, receiving the honor in both 1986 and 1988, and the [[NCTE George Orwell Award for Distinguished Contribution to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language]], receiving the honor in both 1987 and 1989.<ref name="MTCW" /> He has also received the Rabindranath Tagore Centenary Award from [[The Asiatic Society]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/shass/soundings/issue_02f/dep_honors_02f.html|title=Soundings: Fall 02|website=web.mit.edu|access-date=2016-05-12}}</ref>
 
Posjedovanje jezika je svojstvo vrste ''homo sapiens'' i ona je zajednička svim pripadnicima naše vrste. Slična sposobnost se ne može pronaći među ostalim životinjskim vrstama. Dakle, jezična sposobnost je ono što čovjeka razlikuje od životinje.
In 2004 Chomsky received the [[Carl von Ossietzky|Carl-von-Ossietzky]] Prize from the city of [[Oldenburg (Oldenburg)|Oldenburg, Germany]] to acknowledge his body of work as a political analyst and media critic.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.inventio-musikverlag.de/shop/chomsky/|title=Chomsky {{!}} Inventio|website=www.inventio-musikverlag.de|access-date=2016-05-11}}</ref> In 2005, Chomsky received an honorary fellowship from the [[Literary and Historical Society (University College Dublin)|Literary and Historical Society]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://soundtracksforthem.com/blog/?p=81|title=Interview: Noam Chomsky Speaks Out On Education and Power : Soundtracksforthem|date=2005-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513224447/http://soundtracksforthem.com/blog/?p=81|archive-date=2011-05-13|access-date=2016-05-10}}</ref> In February 2008, he received the President's Medal from the Literary and Debating Society of the [[National University of Ireland, Galway]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.literaryanddebating.com/press/80-archbishop-desmond-tutu-to-speak-to-litndeb|title=Archbishop Desmond Tutu to speak to Litndeb|date=2009-01-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511134531/http://www.literaryanddebating.com/press/80-archbishop-desmond-tutu-to-speak-to-litndeb|archive-date=2011-05-11|access-date=2016-05-10}}</ref> Since 2009, he has been an honorary member of [[International Association of Professional Translators and Interpreters]] (IAPTI).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aipti.org/eng/honorary_members/|title=IAPTI -INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF PROFESSIONAL TRANSLATORS AND INTERPRETERS|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724230828/http://www.aipti.org/eng/honorary_members/|archive-date=2011-07-24|access-date=2016-05-10}}</ref>
 
== Filozofija ==
In 2010, Chomsky received the [[Erich Fromm Prize]] in [[Stuttgart|Stuttgart, Germany]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.erich-fromm.de/biophil/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=190:the-2010-erich-fromm-prize-to-noam-chomsky&catid=54:latest-news|title=The 2010 Erich Fromm Prize to Noam Chomsky|date=2010-01-16|website=International Erich Fromm Society|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611054114/http://www.erich-fromm.de/biophil/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=190:the-2010-erich-fromm-prize-to-noam-chomsky&catid=54:latest-news|archive-date=2011-06-11|dead-url=yes|access-date=2016-05-10}}</ref> In April 2010, Chomsky became the third scholar to receive the University of Wisconsin's A.E. Havens Center's Award for Lifetime Contribution to Critical Scholarship.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.news.wisc.edu/17889|title=Author, activist Noam Chomsky to receive award|date=2010-03-29|website=www.news.wisc.edu|access-date=2016-05-10}}</ref>
 
Njegov uticaj na filozofiju (pogotovo analitičku) je sljedeći: utiče na odmak od prevladavajućeg [[empirizam|empirizma]], na udaljavanje od bihejviorizma u [[psihologija|psihologiji]], strukturalizma u lingvistici, te na udaljavanje od [[Pozitivizam|pozitivizma]] u filozofiji. Pruža novi kognitivistički pristup lingvistici, te stvara nov pristup razmišljanja o ljudskom umu i ljudskom jeziku u filozofiji, što rezultira mnogim važnim debatama sa glavnim akterima analitičke [[filozofija|filozofije]], primjerice Hilary Putnam, Willard Van Orman Quine, John Searle, Donald Davidson, Saul Kripke, Thomas Nagel, Michael Dummet, Tyler Burge.
[[File:Megachile chomskyi holotype - ZooKeys-283-043-g004.jpeg|thumb|left|The ''Megachile chomskyi'' [[holotype]], a bee that was named after Chomsky]]
Chomsky has an [[Erdős number]] of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oakland.edu/enp/erdpaths/|title=Paths to Erdös - The Erdös Number Project- Oakland University|website=www.oakland.edu|access-date=2016-05-10}}</ref>
 
== Aktivizam ==
Chomsky was voted the world's leading [[public intellectual]] in [[The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll]] jointly conducted by American magazine ''[[Foreign Policy]]'' and British magazine [[Prospect (magazine)|''Prospect'']].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title = Prospect/FP Top 100 Public Intellectuals Results|url = http://foreignpolicy.com/2005/10/15/prospectfp-top-100-public-intellectuals-results|date = 2005-10-15|accessdate = 2015-11-30|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20051025155541/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3260|archivedate = 2005-10-25}}</ref> In a list compiled by the magazine ''[[New Statesman]]'' in 2006, he was voted seventh in the list of "Heroes of our time."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200605220016|title=New Statesman – Heroes of our time – the top 50|date=2006-12-27|dead-url=yes|accessdate=2015-12-09|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061227165815/http://www.newstatesman.com/200605220016|archivedate=2006-12-27}}</ref>
 
Sa političkim djelovanjem započinje za vrijeme vijetnamskog rata. Angažiran je na strani američke ljevice, tačnije [[1965]]. organizira akciju odbijanja plaćanja poreza kao oblika protesta zbog vijetnamskog rata.
Actor [[Viggo Mortensen]] and avant-garde guitarist [[Buckethead]] dedicated their 2003 album ''[[Pandemoniumfromamerica]]'' to Chomsky.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.viggofanbase.com/cds#pfa|title=Viggo Mortensen's Spoken Word & Music CDs|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215194045/http://www.viggofanbase.com/cds#pfa|archive-date=2010-12-15|dead-url=yes|access-date=2016-05-10}}</ref> On January 22, 2010, a special honorary concert for Chomsky was given at [[Kresge Auditorium]] at MIT. The concert, attended by Chomsky and dozens of his family and friends, featured music composed by [[Edward Manukyan]] and speeches by Chomsky's colleagues, including [[David Pesetsky]] of MIT and [[Gennaro Chierchia]], head of the linguistics department at Harvard University.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.edwardmanukyan.com/concerts/chomsky_tribute.html|title=The Official Edward Manukyan Website - Honoring Noam Chomsky|website=www.edwardmanukyan.com|access-date=2016-05-10}}</ref>
Prvu političku knjigu pod nazivom ''American Power and the New Mandarins'' ("Američka moć i novi mandarini") objavljuje [[1969]]. Knjiga je zbirka eseja koji izlažu argumente protiv vijetnamskog rata, općenito protiv američke vanjske politike, te u tim esejima optužuje SAD za novi imperijalizam. Protivi se američkoj intervenciji u Vijetnamu iz razloga što niko nije proglasio SAD sudcima i krvnicima Vijetnama.
Dok su novi mandarini liberalni intelektualci i mainstream (srednjestrujaški) mediji koji rade u svrhu režima i služe kao apologete rata, odnosno daju ideološko pokriće ratu.
 
Nakon 1969. napisao je preko 40 političkih knjiga. Njegov politički angažman se može podjeliti u tri dijela:
In May 2007, [[Jamia Millia Islamia]], a prestigious Indian university, named one of its complexes after Noam Chomsky.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jmi.ac.in/bulletinboard/press-releases/latest/Honble_Minister_for_Human_Resource_Development_Shri_Arjun_Singh_visiting_Jamia_Millia_Islamia_on_04_05_2007-459|title=Jamia Millia Islamia named a complex honoring Noam Chomsky|access-date=2007-05-03}}</ref>
 
1.Borba protiv velikih korporacija, [[kapitalizam|kapitalizma]] koji koristi ljude kao jeftinu radnu snagu, donosi dobit samo manjem broju ljudi što na kraju rezultira sve većim jazom između bogatih i siromašnih.
In June 2011, Chomsky was awarded the [[Sydney Peace Prize]], which cited his "unfailing courage, critical analysis of power and promotion of human rights."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/national/sydney-peace-prize-goes-to-chomsky-20110601-1fgws.html|title=Sydney Peace Prize goes to Chomsky|date=2011-06-10|website=The Sydney Morning Herald|accessdate=2015-12-23}}</ref> Also in 2011, Chomsky was inducted into [[IEEE Intelligent Systems]]' AI's Hall of Fame for "significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/pr/399442|title=IEEE Computer Society Magazine Honors Artificial Intelligence Leaders - Press Release - Digital Journal|date=2011-08-24|website=www.digitaljournal.com|access-date=2016-05-10}}</ref>
 
2.Borba protiv SAD-ovih tzv. preventivnih ratova, a zapravo ratova vođenih u korist korporacija koje postavljaju američke predsjednike i vode američku vanjsku politiku.
In 2013, a newly described species of bee was named after him: ''Megachile chomskyi''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pensoft.net/news.php?n=230|title=Let me introduce myself -- leafcutter bee Megachile chomskyi from Texas - Pensoft|website=www.pensoft.net|access-date=2016-05-10}}</ref>
 
3.Borba protiv mainstream media i intelektualaca koji služe kao ideološko pokriće korporacijama i sve većem jazu između bogatih i siromašnih.
==Bibliography and filmography==
{{Main article|Noam Chomsky bibliography and filmography}}
 
U zadnje vrijeme poznat je po "dizanju bure" svojom izjavom da su SAD vodeći svjetski terorist, a ne oni protiv kojih SAD vodi tzv. ratove protiv [[terorizam|terorizma]].
==See also==
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->
{{div col||20em|small=yes}}
* [[American philosophy]]
* [[New Left]]
* [[Axiom of categoricity]]
* ''[[The Anti-Chomsky Reader]]''
* [[Judith Chomsky]]
<!-- * [[Chomskybot]] -->
* "[[Colorless green ideas sleep furiously]]"
* [[Knowledge worker]]
* [[List of important publications in computer science#Computability|List of important publications in computability]]
* [[List of peace activists]]
* [[List of linguists#C|List of linguists]]
{{div col end}}
<!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order -->
{{Portal bar|Anarchism|Linguistics|Mind and Brain|Philosophy|Politics|Socialism}}
 
== Kriticizam Čomskog ==
==References==
 
Čomski često izaziva kritiku zbog svojih bezkompromisnih stavova u vezi politike [[Sjedinjene Američke Države|SAD]]-a. U svojim polemikama oko sukoba u bivšoj [[Jugoslavija|Jugoslaviji]], on konstantno osuđuju politiku zapadnih zemalja oko, što on vidi kao agresiju na [[Srbija|Srbiju]] i [[Srbi|srpski]] narod <ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/guardianweekly/story/0,,1807962,00.html A noxious form of argument - kritika knjige Failed States: The Abuse of Power and the Assault on Democracy]</ref>. U nekoliko navrata to ga je dovelo u direktni sukob sa novinarima i ljevičarskim glasilima, poput optužbe britanske novinarke Eme Broks (Emma Brockes) da je poricao [[genocid u Srebrenici]] <ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/readerseditor/story/0,,1782567,00.html Readers' editor right to publish apology, external review finds]</ref>, koje je on porekao citirajući da on podržava američku autoricu Dijanu Džonston (Diana Johnstone) koja opet poriče da su [[Genocid u Srebrenici|događaji u Srebrenici]] genocid ili masakr <ref>[http://www.counterpunch.org/johnstone10122005.html Srebrenica Revisited]</ref>, čisto zbog [[slobodno mišljenje|slobode mišljenja]].
===Footnotes===
{{reflist|30em}}
 
===Bibliography= Reference ==
{{Refbeginreference}}
: {{Cite journal | year = 2011 |title = AI's Hall of Fame |url = http://www.computer.org/cms/Computer.org/ComputingNow/homepage/2011/0811/rW_IS_AIsHallofFame.pdf | journal = [[IEEE Intelligent Systems]]| publisher = [[IEEE Computer Society]]| volume = 26 |issue = 4 |pages = 5–15 |doi = 10.1109/MIS.2011.64}}
: {{cite book |last=Barsky |first=Robert F. |authorlink=Robert Barsky |year=1997 |title=Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-02418-1 |ref=harv}}
: {{cite journal|last1=Changeux|first1=Jean-Pierre|last2=Courrége|first2=Philippe|last3=Danchin|first3=Antoine|year=1973|title=A Theory of the Epigenesis of Neuronal Networks by Selective Stabilization of Synapses|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]|volume=70|issue=10|pages=2974–8|doi=10.1073/pnas.70.10.2974|pmid=4517949|pmc=427150}}
: {{cite journal |last=Chomsky |first=Noam |year=1959 |title=Reviews: ''Verbal behavior'' by B. F. Skinner |url=http://www.chomsky.info/articles/1967----.htm |journal=[[Language (journal)|Language]] |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=26–58 |jstor=411334}}
: {{Cite book |last=Cohn |first=Werner |title=Partners in Hate: Noam Chomsky and the Holocaust Deniers |year=1995 |origyear=1985 |publisher=Avukah Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0-964-58970-2 |ref=harv}}
: {{cite journal |last1=Evans |first1=N. |author1-link=Nicholas Evans (linguist) |last2=Levinson |first2=S. C. |author2-link=Stephen C. Levinson |year=2009 |title=The myth of language universals: Language diversity and its importance for cognitive science |url=http://www.princeton.edu/~adele/LIN_106:_UCB_files/Evans-Levinson09_preprint.pdf |journal=[[Behavioral and Brain Sciences]] |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=429–448 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X0999094X}}
: {{cite book |last=Everett |first=Daniel L. |authorlink=Daniel Everett |year=2008 |title=Don't Sleep, There Are Snakes: Life and Language in the Amazonian Jungle |location=New York, NY |publisher=[[Pantheon Books]] |isbn=978-0-375-42502-8}}
: {{cite journal|last1=Gardner|first1=R. A.|last2=Gardner|first2=B. T.|year=1969|title=Teaching Sign Language to a Chimpanzee|url=http://www.cog.brown.edu/courses/cg2000/Papers/Chimp69ScienceGardner.pdf|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=165|pages=664–672|jstor=1727877|doi=10.1126/science.165.3894.664|pmid=5793972|issue=3894}}
: {{cite book|last1=Gardner|first1=R. A.|last2=Gardner|first2=B. T.|last3=Van Cantfort|first3=Thomas E.|year=1989|title=Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees|url=http://www.sunypress.edu/p-825-teaching-sign-language-to-chimp.aspx|location= Albany, NY|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|isbn=978-0-88706-965-9}}
: {{cite book |last=Laurence |first=Stephen |year=2003 |chapter=Is Linguistics a Branch of Psychology? |chapterurl=http://www.philosophy.dept.shef.ac.uk/papers/IsLingPsych.pdf |title=''In A. Barker, ed.,'' Epistemology of Language ''(pp.&nbsp;69–106)'' |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}
: {{cite book | last = Lehmann | first = Christian | year = 1982 | chapter = On some current views of the language universal | title = ''In René Dirven and Günter Radden, eds.,'' Issues in the Theory of Universal Grammar'', pp.&nbsp;75–94'' | location = Tübingen | publisher = Gunter Narr | isbn = 3-87808-565-6 | ref = harv }}
: {{cite book |last=Lyons |first=John |authorlink=John Lyons (linguist) |year=1978 |title=Noam Chomsky |edition=revised |location=Harmondsworth |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-004370-9 |ref=harv}}
: {{cite book |last=McGilvray |first=Janes |year=2014 |title=Chomsky: Language, Mind, Politics |edition=second |publisher=Polity |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-7456-4989-4 |ref=harv}}
: {{cite book|last=Miles|first=H. Lyn White|year=1990|chapter=The cognitive foundations for reference in a signing orangutan|title=''In Sue Taylor Parker and Kathleen Rita Gibson, eds.,'' "Language" and intelligence in monkeys and apes: Comparative developmental perspectives ''(pp.&nbsp;511–539)''|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-38028-7}}
: {{Cite book |last= Nevin |first= Bruce |year= 2010 |chapter= Noam and Zellig |title= ''In Douglas A. Kibbee, ed., ''Chomskyan (R)evolutions'', pp.&#8239;103–168'' |location= Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA |publisher= [[John Benjamins Publishing Company]] |isbn= 978-9-027-21169-9 |ref= harv }}
: {{cite journal|last=Nishida|first=T.|year=1968|title=The social group of wild chimpanzees in the Mahali Mountains|journal=[[Primates (journal)|Primates]]|volume=9|issue=3|pages=167–224|doi=10.1007/BF01730971}}
: {{cite book|last=Patel|first=Aniruddh D.|year=2008|title=Music, Language, and the Brain|location=New York, NY|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-512375-3}}
: {{cite book|last1=Patterson|first1=Francine|author1-link=Francine Patterson|last2=Linden|first2=Eugene|author2-link=Eugene Linden (author)|year=1981|title=The Education of Koko|location=New York, NY|publisher=[[Holt, Rinehart & Winston]]|isbn=978-0-03-046101-9}}
: {{cite book|last=Plooij|first=F. X.|year=1978|chapter=Some basic traits of language in wild chimpanzees?|title=''In A. Lock, ed.,'' Action, Gesture and Symbol: The Emergence of Language ''(pp.&nbsp;111–131)''|location=London|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|isbn=978-0-12-454050-7}}
: {{cite book|last=Poole|first=Geoffrey|year=2005|chapter=Noam Chomsky|title=''In Siobhan Chapman and Christopher Routledge, eds.,'' Key Thinkers in Linguistics and the Philosophy of Language ''(pp.&nbsp;53–59)'' |location=Edinburgh |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |isbn=978-0-7486-1757-9}}
: {{cite book |last= Posner |first= Richard A. |authorlink= Richard Posner |year= 2003 |title= Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline |edition= Revised |location= Cambridge,&nbsp;MA |publisher= [[Harvard University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-674-01246-2}}
: {{cite journal|last=Premack|first=D.|year=1985|title= 'Gavagai!' or the future history of the animal language controversy|journal=Cognition|volume=19|issue=3|pages=207–296|doi=10.1016/0010-0277(85)90036-8|pmid=4017517}}
: {{cite journal|last=Rabbani|first=Mouin|authorlink=Mouin Rabbani|year=2012|title=Reflections on a Lifetime of Engagement with Zionism, the Palestine Question, and American Empire: An Interview with Noam Chomsky|url=http://www.palestine-studies.org/journals.aspx?id=11394&jid=1&href=fulltext|journal=[[Journal of Palestine Studies]]|volume=41|issue=3|pages=92–120|doi=10.1525/jps.2012.XLI.3.92|ref=harv}}
: {{cite book |last = Rai|first = Milan|title = Chomsky's Politics|publisher = Verso|date = 1995|isbn = 978-1-859-84011-5 |ref=harv}}
: {{cite journal|last1=Savage-Rumbaugh|first1=S.|author1-link=Sue Savage-Rumbaugh|last2=Rumbaugh|first2=D. M.|last3=McDonald|first3=K.|year=1985|title=Language learning in two species of apes|journal=[[Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews]]|volume=9|issue=4|pages=653–665|doi=10.1016/0149-7634(85)90012-0}}
: {{cite journal|last1=Savage-Rumbaugh|first1=S.|author1-link=Sue Savage-Rumbaugh|last2=McDonald|first2=K.|last3=Sevcik|first3=R. A.|last4=Hopkins|first4=W. D. |last5=Rubert |first5=E. |year=1986 |title=Spontaneous Symbol Acquisition and Communicative Use By Pygmy Chimpanzees (''Pan paniscus'') |url=http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~sereno/170/readings/21-ApeLanguage.pdf |journal=[[Journal of Experimental Psychology: General]]|volume=115|issue=3|pages=211–235}}
: {{Cite journal|last=Sheffield|first=Cory|date=2013-03-04|title=A new species of Megachile Latreille subgenus Megachiloides (Hymenoptera, Megachilidae)|url=http://zookeys.pensoft.net/articles.php?id=3852|journal=ZooKeys|language=en|volume=283|pages=43–58|doi=10.3897/zookeys.283.4674|issn=1313-2970|pmc=3677363|pmid=23794841}}
: {{cite book |last=Sperlich |first=Wolfgang B. |year=2006 |title=Noam Chomsky |publisher=Reaktion Books |location=London |isbn=9781861892690 |ref=harv}}
: {{cite book|last=Terrace|first=Herbert S.|year=1987|title=Nim: A Chimpanzee who Learned Sign Language|location=New York, NY|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|isbn=978-0-231-06341-8}}
{{Refend}}
 
== Također pogledajte ==
==External links==
* [[Filozofija]]
{{Sister project links|wikt=Chomskyan|b=no|s=Author:Noam_Chomsky|n=Interview with US political activist and philosopher Noam Chomsky|v=no|d=Q9049}}
* [[Savremena filozofija]]
{{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooks=yes|viaf=89803084}}
* [[Chomskyjev normalni oblik]]
* {{Official website|http://www.chomsky.info/ }}
* [[Chomskyjeva hijerarhija]]
* [http://web.mit.edu/linguistics/people/faculty/chomsky/ Noam Chomsky] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]
* [[Diana Johnstone]]
* {{Charlie Rose view|440}}
* [http://www.radicalanthropologygroup.org/old/pub_chomsky_politics_science.pdf Noam Chomsky: Politics or Science?]
*[http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeraworld/2015/10/noam-chomsky-knowledge-power-151014111029879.html ''Noam Chomsky: Knowledge and Power'']. Al Jazeera English, October 2015 (video, 47 mins) – documentary about the life and work of Chomsky
* {{C-SPAN|Noam Chomsky}}
** [http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/Chom ''In Depth'' interview with Chomsky, June 1, 2003]
* [http://www.chrisknight.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/Interview-with-Noam-Chomsky.pdf Interview with Noam Chomsky, 'Human nature and the origins of language.' ''Radical Anthropology'' 2008.]
* [http://www.iww.org/history/library/Chomsky/2009int IWW Interview with Noam Chomsky: Worker Occupations And The Future Of Radical Labor]. Oct. 9, 2009
* [http://www.newstatesman.com/international-politics/2010/09/war-crimes-interview-obama Noam Chomsky] interviewed by Alyssa McDonald on ''[[New Statesman]]'', September 2010.
* ''[[The Real News]]'' interviews with Chomsky: [http://therealnews.com/t2/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=33&Itemid=74&jumival=638 2007–2010 (11 interviews)] and [http://therealnews.com/t2/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=74&jumival=12018 June 2014 (3 interviews)]
* [http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/11/noam-chomsky-on-where-artificial-intelligence-went-wrong/261637/?single_page=true Noam Chomsky on Where Artificial Intelligence Went Wrong] – interview in ''[[The Atlantic]]'', November 2012
* [http://inthesetimes.com/article/16081/a_history_of_anarchism/ A Brief History of Anarchism]. Noam Chomsky, ''[[In These Times]].'' January 9, 2014.
* [http://www.truthdig.com/report/item/american_socrates_20140615 American Socrates]. Interviewed by [[Chris Hedges]] for ''[[Truthdig]]'', June 15, 2014.
* [http://rt.com/usa/202223-noam-chomsky-global-terror/ Noam Chomsky calls US 'world's leading terrorist state'] [[RT (TV network)|RT]], November 5, 2014.
* [https://www.jacobinmag.com/2015/02/noam-chomsky-interview-jacobin/ The World of Our Grandchildren]. ''[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]]'' interview with Noam Chomsky, February 13, 2015.
*[http://therealnews.com/t2/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=74&jumival=14971 Electing The President Of An Empire]. [[Abby Martin]] interview with Chomsky, October 24, 2015
* [https://libcom.org/library/noam-chomsky-reading-guide Libcom's 'Noam Chomsky – Reading Guide']
* {{Goodreads author}}
* [http://scienceandrevolution.org/ ''Decoding Chomsky - Science and Revolutionary Politics''] by Chris Knight
 
== Vanjski linkovi ==
{{Noam Chomsky}}
{{Wikicitat|Noam Chomsky}}
{{MIT}}
{{Commonscat}}
{{Analytic philosophy}}
* [http://www.chomsky.info/ službena stranica Noama Chomskog]
{{Communication studies}}
* [http://www.zmag.org/chomsky/index.cfm arhiv Chomskijevih članaka na Z-netu]
{{Anarchism}}
* [http://izreka.com/index.php/osobe/179-noam-chomsky-izreke-citati-misli Noam Chomsky - izreke, citati, misli...]
{{Socialism}}
{{Orwell Award recipients}}
{{Sydney Peace Prize laureates}}
 
{{AuthorityČlanovi controlSANU}}
{{Socijalna i politička filozofija}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chomsky, Noam}}
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